Workbook 8 String Processing Tools

1
Workbook 8String Processing Tools
Pace Center for Business and Technology
2
String Processing Tools

• Key Concepts
• When storing text, computers transform characters
  into a numeric representation. This process is
  referred to as encoding the text.
• In order to accommodate the demands of a variety
  of languages, several different encoding
  techniques have been developed. These techniques
  are represented by a variety of character sets.
• The oldest and most prevalent encoding technique
  is known as the ASCII character set, which still
  serves as a least common denominator among other
  techniques.
• The wc command counts the number of characters,
  words, and lines in a file. When applied to
  structured data, the wc command can become a
  versatile counting tool.
• The cat command has options that allow
  representation of nonprinting characters such as
  NEWLINE.
• The head and tail commands have options that
  allow you to print only a certain number of lines
  or a certain number of bytes (one byte usually
  correlates to one character) from a file.

3
What are Files?

• Linux, like most operating systems, stores
  information that needs to be preserved outside of
  the context of any individual process in files.
  (In this context, and for most of this Workbook,
  the term file is meant in the sense of regular
  file). Linux (and Unix) files store information
  using a simple model information is stored as a
  single, ordered array of bytes, starting from at
  first and ending at the last. The number of bytes
  in the array is the length of the file. 9
• What type of information is stored in files? Here
  are but a few examples.
• The characters that compose the book report you
  want to store until you can come back and finish
  it tomorrow are stored in a file called (say)
  /bookreport.txt.
• The individual colors that make up the picture
  you took with your digital camera are stored in
  the file (say) /mnt/camera/dcim/100nikon/dscn1203.
  jpg.
• The characters which define the usernames of
  users on a Linux system (and their home
  directories, etc.) are stored in the file
  /etc/passwd.
• The specific instructions which tell an x86
  compatible CPU how to use the Linux kernel to
  list the files in a given directory are stored in
  the file /bin/ls.

4
Text Encoding

• Perhaps the most common type of data which
  computers are asked to store is text. As
  computers have developed, a variety of techniques
  for encoding text have been developed, from the
  simple in concept (which could encode only the
  Latin alphabet used in Western languages) to
  complicated but powerful techniques that attempt
  to encode all forms of human written
  communication, even attempting to include
  historical languages such as Egyptian
  hieroglyphics. The following sections discuss
  many of the encoding techniques commonly used in
  Red Hat Enterprise Linux.

5
ASCII

• One of the oldest, and still most commonly used
  techniques for encoding text is called ASCII
  encoding. ASCII encoding simply takes the 26
  lowercase and 26 uppercase letters which compose
  the Latin alphabet, 10 digits, and common English
  punctuation characters (those found on a
  keyboard), and maps them to an integer between 0
  and 255, as outlined in the following table.

6
ASCII

• What about the integers 0 - 32? These integers
  are mapped to special keys on early teletypes,
  many of which have to do with manipulating the
  spacing on the page being typed on. The following
  characters are commonly called "whitespace"
  characters.

7
ASCII

• Others of the first 32 integers are mapped to
  keys which did not directly influence the
  "printed page", but instead sent "out of band"
  control signals between two teletypes. Many of
  these control signals have special
  interpretations within Linux (and Unix).

8
Generating Control Characters from the Keyboard

• Control and whitespace characters can be
  generated from the terminal keyboard directly
  using the CTRL key. For example, an audible bell
  can be generated using CTRLG, while a backspace
  can be sent using CTRLH, and we have already
  mentioned that CTRLD is used to generate an "End
  of File" (or "End of Transmission"). Can you
  determine how the whitespace and control
  characters are mapped to the various CTRL key
  combinations? For example, what CTRL key
  combination generates a tab? What does CTRLJ
  generate? As you explore various control
  sequences, remember that the reset command will
  restore your terminal to sane behavior, if
  necessary.
• A tab can be generated with CTRLI, while CTRLJ
  will generate a line feed (akin to hitting the
  RETURN key). In general, CTRLA will generate
  ASCII character 1, CTRLB will generate ASCII
  character 2, and so on.
• What about the values 128-255? ASCII encoding
  does not use them. The ASCII standard only
  defines the first 128 values of a byte, leaving
  the remaining 128 values to be defined by other
  schemes.

9
ISO 8859 and Other Character Sets

• Other standard encoding schemes have been
  developed, which map various glyphs (such as the
  symbol for the Yen and Euro), diacritical marks
  found in many European languages, and non Latin
  alphabets to the latter 128 values of a byte
  which the ASCII standard leaves undefined. The
  following table lists a few of these standard
  encoding schemes, which are referred to as
  character sets. The following table lists some
  character sets which are supported in Linux,
  including their informal name, formal name, and a
  brief description.

10
ISO 8859 and Other Character Sets

• Notice a couple of implications about ISO 8859
  encoding.
• Each of the alternate encodings map a single
  glyph to a single byte, so that the number of
  letters encoded in a file equals the number of
  bytes which are required to encode them.
• Choosing a particular character set extends the
  range of characters that can be encoded, but you
  cannot encode characters from different character
  sets simultaneously. For example, you could not
  encode both a Latin capital A with a grave and a
  Greek letter Delta simultaneously.

11
Unicode (UCS)

• In order to overcome the limitations of ASCII and
  ISO 8859 based encoding techniques, a Universal
  Character Set has been developed, commonly
  referred to as UCS, or Unicode. The Unicode
  standard acknowledges the fact that one byte of
  information, with its ability to encode 256
  different values, is simply not enough to encode
  the variety of glyphs found in human
  communication. Instead, the Unicode standard uses
  4 bytes to encode each character. Think of 4
  bytes as 32 light switches. If we were to again
  label each permutation of on and off for 32
  switches with integers, the mathematician would
  tell you that you would need 4,294,967,296 (over
  4 billion) integers. Thus, Unicode can encode
  over 4 billion glyphs (nearly enough for every
  person on the earth to have their own unique
  glyph the user prince would approve).

12
Text Encoding and the Open Source Community

• When contributors to the open source community
  are faced with decisions involving potentially
  incompatible formats, they generally balance
  local needs with an appreciation for adhering to
  widely accepted standards where appropriate. The
  UTF-8 encoding format seems to be evolving as an
  accepted standard, and in recent releases has
  become the default for Red Hat Enterprise Linux.
• The following paragraph, extracted from the
  utf-8(7) man page, says it well

13
The LANG environment variable

• The LANG environment variable is used to define a
  user's language, and possibly the default
  encoding technique as well. The variable is
  expected to be set to a string using the
  following syntax
• The locale command can be used to examine your
  current configuration (as can echo LANG), while
  locale -a will list all settings currently
  supported by your system. The extent of the
  support for any given language will vary.

14
The LANG environment variable

• The following tables list some selected language
  codes, country codes, and code set
  specifications.

15
Revisiting cat, head, and tail

• Revisiting cat
• We have been using the cat command to simply
  display the contents of files. Usually, the cat
  command generates a faithful copy of its input,
  without performing any edits or conversions. When
  called with one of the following command line
  switches, however, the cat command will indicate
  the presence tabs, line feeds, and other control
  sequences, using the following conventions.
• Using the -A command line switch, the whitespace
  structure of the file becomes evident, as tabs
  are replaced with I, and line feeds are
  decorated with . E.g. cat -A /etc/hosts

16
Revisiting head and tail

• The head and tail commands have been used to
  display the first or last few lines of a file,
  respectively. But what makes a line? Imagine
  yourself working at a typewriter click! clack!
  click! clack! clack! ziiing! Instead of the
  ziing! of the typewriter carriage at the end of
  each line, the line feed character (ASCII 10) is
  chosen to mark the end of lines.
• Unfortunately, a common convention for how to
  mark the end of a line is not shared among the
  dominant operating systems in use today. Linux
  (and Unix) uses the line feed character (ASCII
  10, often represented \n), while Macintosh
  operating systems uses the carriage return
  character (ASCII 13, often represented \r or M),
  and Microsoft operating systems use a carriage
  return/line feed pair (ASCII 13, ASCII 10).

17
Revisiting head and tail

• For example, the following file contains a list
  of four musicians.
• Linux (and Unix) text files generally adhere to a
  convention that the last character of the file
  must be a line feed for the last line of text.
  Following the cat of the file musicians.mac,
  which does not contain any conventional Linux
  line feed characters, the bash prompt is not
  displayed in its usual location.

18
Revisiting head and tail
19
The wc (Word Count) Command

• Counting Made Easy
• Have you ever tried to answer a 25 words or
  less quiz? Did you ever have to write a
  1500-word essay?
• With the wc you can easily verify that your
  contribution meets the criteria.
• The wc command counts the number of characters,
  words, and lines. It will take its input either
  from files named on its command line or from its
  standard input. Below is the command line form
  for the wc program

20
The wc (Word Count) Command

• When used without any command line switches, wc
  will report on the number of characters, lines,
  and words. Command line switches can be combined
  to return any combination of character count,
  line count or word count.

21
How To Recognize A Real Character

• Text files are composed using an alphabet of
  characters. Some characters are visible, such as
  numbers and letters. Some characters are used for
  horizontal distance, such as spaces and TAB
  characters. Some characters are used for vertical
  movement, such as carriage returns and line
  feeds.
• A line in a text file is a series of any
  character other than a NEWLINE (line feed)
  character and then a NEWLINE character.
  Additional lines in the file immediately follow
  the first line.
• While a computer represents characters as
  numbers, the exact value used for each symbol
  varies depending on which alphabet has been
  chosen. The most common alphabet for English
  speakers is ASCII, also called Latin-1.
  Different human languages are represented by
  different computer encoding rules, so the exact
  numeric value for a given character depends on
  the human language being recorded.

22
So, What Is A Word?

• A word is a group of printing characters, such as
  letters and digits, surrounded by white space,
  such as space characters or horizontal TAB
  characters.
• Notice that our definition of a word does not
  include any notion of meaning. Only the form of
  the word is important, not its semantics. As far
  as Linux is concerned, a line such as

23
Chapter 2.  Finding Text grep

• Key Concepts
• grep is a command that prints lines that match a
  specified text string or pattern.
• grep is commonly used as a filter to reduce
  output to only desired items.
• grep -r will recursively grep files underneath a
  given directory.
• grep -v prints lines that do NOT match a
  specified text string or pattern.
• Many other command line switches allow users to
  specify grep's output format.

24
Searching Text File Contents using grep

• In an earlier Lesson, we saw how the wc program
  can be used to count the characters, words and
  lines in text files. In this Lesson we introduce
  the grep program, a handy tool for searching text
  file contents for specific words or character
  sequences.
• The name grep stands for general regular
  expression parser. What, you may well ask, is a
  regular expression and why on earth should I want
  to parse one? We will provide a more formal
  definition of regular expressions in a later
  Lesson, but for now it is enough to know that a
  regular expression is simply a way of describing
  a pattern, or template, to match some sequence of
  characters. A simple regular expression would be
  Hello, which matches exactly five characters
  H, e, two consecutive l characters, and a
  final o. More powerful search patterns are
  possible and we shall examine them in the next
  section.
• The figure below gives the general form of the
  grep command line

25
Searching Text File Contents using grep

• There are actually three different names for the
  grep tool 10
• fgrep Does a fast search for simple patterns. Use
  this command to quickly locate patterns without
  any wildcard characters, useful when searching
  for an ordinary word.
• grep Pattern searches using ordinary regular
  expressions.
• egrep Pattern searches using more powerful
  extended regular expressions.
• The pattern argument supplies the template
  characters for which grep is to search. The
  pattern is expected to be a single argument, so
  if pattern contains any spaces, or other
  characters special to the shell, you must enclose
  the pattern in quotes to prevent the shell from
  expanding or word splitting it.

26
Searching Text File Contents using grep

• The following table summarizes some of grep's
  more commonly used command line switches. Consult
  the grep(1) man page (or invoke grep --help) for
  more.

27
Show All Occurrences of a String in a File

• Under Linux, there are often several ways of
  accomplishing the same task. For example, to see
  if a file contains the word even, you could
  just visually scan the file
• Reading the file, we see that the file does
  indeed contain the letters even. Using this
  method on a large file suffers because we could
  easily miss one word in a file of several
  thousand, or even several hundred thousand,
  words. We can use the grep tool to search through
  the file for us in an automatic search
• Here we searched for a word using its exact
  spelling. Instead of just a literal string, the
  pattern argument can also be a general template
  for matching more complicated character
  sequences we shall explore that in a later
  Lesson.

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Searching in Several Files at Once

• An easy way to search several files is just to
  name them on the grep command line
• Perhaps we are more interested in just
  discovering which file mentions the word nine
  than actually seeing the line itself. Adding the
  -l switch to the grep line does just that

29
Searching Directories Recursively

• Grep can also search all the files in a whole
  directory tree with a single command. This can be
  handy when working a large number of files.
• The easiest way to understand this is to see it
  in action. In the directory /etc/sysconfig are
  text files that contain much of the configuration
  information about a Linux system. The Linux name
  for the first Ethernet network device on a system
  is eth0, so you can find which file contains
  the configuration for eth0 by letting the grep -r
  command do the searching for you 11

30
Searching Directories Recursively

• Every file in /etc/sysconfig that mentions eth0
  is shown in the results.
• We can further limit the files listed to only
  those referring to an actual device by filtering
  the grep -r output through a grep DEVICE
• This shows a common use of grep as a filter to
  simplify the outputs of other commands.
• If only the names of the files were of interest,
  the output can be simplified with the -l command
  line switch.

31
Inverting grep

• By default, grep shows only the lines matching
  the search pattern. Usually, this is what you
  want, but sometimes you are interested in the
  lines that do not match the pattern. In these
  instances, the -v command line switch inverts
  grep's operation.

32
Getting Line Numbers

• Often you may be searching a large file that has
  many occurrences of the pattern. Grep will list
  each line containing one or more matches, but how
  is one to locate those lines in the original
  file? Using the grep -n command will also list
  the line number of each matching line.
• The file /usr/share/dict/words contains a list of
  common dictionary words. Identify which line
  contains the word dictionary
• You might also want to combine the -n switch with
  the -r switch when searching all the files below
  a directory

33
Limiting Matching to Whole Words

• Remember the file containing our nursery rhyme
  earlier?
• Suppose we wanted to retrieve all lines
  containing the word at. If we try the command
  
• Do you see what happened? We matched the at
  string, whether it was an isolated word or part
  of a larger word. The grep command provides the
  -w switch to imply that the specified pattern
  should only match entire words.
• The -w switch considers a sequence of letters,
  numbers, and underscore characters, surrounded by
  anything else, to be a word.

34
Ignoring Case

• The string Bob has quite a meaning quite
  different from the string bob. However,
  sometimes we want to find either one, regardless
  of whether the word is capitalized or not. The
  grep -i command solves just this problem.

35
ExamplesFinding Simple Character Strings

• Verify that your computer has the system account
  lp, used for the line printer tools. Hint the
  file /etc/passwd contains one line for each user
  account on the system.

36
QuestionsChapter 2.  Finding Text grep

• 1, 2 and 3

37
Chapter 3.  Introduction to Regular Expressions

• Key Concepts
• Regular expressions are a standard Unix syntax
  for specifying text patterns.
• Regular expressions are understood by many
  commands, including grep, sed, vi, and many
  scripting languages.
• Within regular expressions, . and are used to
  match characters.
• Within regular expressions, , , and ?specify a
  number of consecutive occurrences.
• Within regular expressions, and specify the
  beginning and end of a line.
• Within regular expressions, (, ), and specify
  alternative groups.
• The regex(7) man page provides complete details.

38
Introducing Regular Expressions

• In the previous chapter you saw grep used to
  match either a whole word or part of a word. This
  by its self is very powerful, especially in
  conjunction with arguments like -i and -v, but it
  is not appropriate for all search scenarios. Here
  are some examples of searches that the grep usage
  you've learned so far would not be able to do
• First, suppose you had a file that looked like
  this

39
Introducing Regular Expressions

• What if you wanted to pull out just the names of
  the people in people_and_pets.txt? A command like
  grep -w Name would match the 'Name' line for
  each person, but also the 'Name' line for each
  person's pet. How could we match only the 'Name'
  lines for people? Well, notice that the lines for
  pets' names are all indented, meaning that those
  lines begin with whitespace characters instead of
  text. Thus, we could achieve our goal if we had a
  way to say "Show me all lines that begin with
  'Name'".
• Another example Suppose you and a friend both
  witnessed a hit-and-run car accident. You both
  got a look at the fleeing car's license plate and
  yet each of you recalls a slightly different
  number. You read the license number as "4I35VBB"
  but your friend read it as "413SV88". It seems
  that what you read as an 'I' in the second
  character, your friend read as a '1'. Similar
  differences appear in your interpretations of
  other parts of the license like '5' vs 'S' and
  'BB' vs '88'. The police, having taken both of
  your statements, now need to narrow down the
  suspects by querying their database of license
  plates for plates that might match what you saw.

40
Introducing Regular Expressions

• One solution might be to do separate queries for
  "4I35VBB" and "413SV88" but doing so assumes that
  one of you is exactly right. What if the
  perpetrator's license number was actually
  "4135VB8"? In other words, what if you were right
  about some of the characters in question but your
  friend was right about others? It would be more
  effective if the police could query for a pattern
  that effectively said "Show me all license
  numbers that begin with a '4', followed by an 'I'
  or a '1', followed by a '3', followed by a '5' or
  an 'S', followed by a 'V', followed by two
  characters that are each either a 'B' or an '8'".
  
• Query scenarios like these can be solved using
  regular expressions. While computer scientists
  sometimes use the term "regular expression" (or
  "regex" for short) to describe any method of
  describing complex patterns, in Linux and many
  programming languages the term refers to a very
  specific set of special characters used for
  solving problems like the above. Regular
  expressions are supported by a large number of
  tools including grep, vi, find and sed.

41
Introducing Regular Expressions

• To introduce the usage of regular expressions,
  lets look at some solutions to two problems
  introduced earlier. Don't worry if these seem a
  bit complicated, the remainder of the unit will
  start from scratch and cover regular expressions
  in great detail.
• A regex that could solve the first problem, where
  we wanted to say "Show me all lines that begin
  with 'Name'" might look like this
• ...that's it! Regular expressions are all about
  the use of special characters, called
  metacharacters to represent advanced query
  parameters. The carat (""), as shown here, means
  "Lines that begin with...". Note, by the way,
  that the regular expression was put in
  single-quotes. This is a good habit to get into
  early on as it prevents bash from interpreting
  special characters that were meant for grep.

42
Introducing Regular Expressions

• Ok, so what about the second problem? That one
  involved a much more complicated query "Show me
  all license numbers that begin with a '4',
  followed by an 'I' or a '1', followed by a '3',
  followed by a '5' or an 'S', followed by a 'V',
  followed by two characters that are each either a
  'B' or an '8'". This could be represented by a
  regular expression that looks like this
• Wow, that's pretty short considering how long it
  took to write out what we were looking for! There
  are only two types of regex metacharacters used
  here square braces ('') and curly braces
  (''). When two or more characters are shown
  within square braces it means "any one of these".
  So 'B8' near the end of the expression means
  "'B' or '8'". When a number is shown within curly
  braces it means "this many of the preceding
  character". Thus, 'B82' means "two characters
  that are each either a 'B' or an '8'". Pretty
  powerful stuff!
• Now that you've gotten a taste of what regular
  expressions are and how they can be used, let's
  start from scratch and cover them in depth.

43
Regular Expressions, Extended Regular
Expressions, and the grep Command

• As the Unix implementation of regular expression
  syntax has evolved, new metacharacters have been
  introduced. In order to preserve backward
  compatibility, commands usually choose to
  implement regular expressions, or extended
  regular expressions. In order to not become
  bogged down with the differences, this Lesson
  will introduce the extended syntax, summarizing
  differences at the end of the discussion.
• One of the most common uses for regular
  expressions is specifying search patterns for the
  grep command. As was mentioned in the previous
  Lesson, there are three versions of the grep
  command. Reiterating, the three differ in how
  they interpret regular expressions.

44
Regular Expressions, Extended Regular
Expressions, and the grep Command

• fgrep
• The fgrep command is designed to be a "fast"
  grep. The fgrep command does not support regular
  expressions, but instead interprets every
  character in the specified search pattern
  literally.
• grep
• The grep command interprets each patterns using
  the original, basic regular expression syntax.
• egrep
• The egrep command interprets each patterns using
  extended regular expression syntax.
• Because we are not yet making a distinction
  between the basic and extended regular expression
  syntax, the egrep command should be used whenever
  the search pattern contains regular expressions.

45
Anatomy of a Regular Expression

• In our discussion of the grep program family, we
  were introduced to the idea of using a pattern to
  identify the file content of interest. Our
  examples were carefully constructed so that the
  pattern contained exactly the text for which we
  were searching. We were careful to use only
  literal characters in our regular expressions a
  literal character matches only itself. So when we
  used hello as the regular expression, we were
  using a five-character regular expression
  composed only of literal characters. While this
  let us concentrate on learning how to operate the
  grep program, it didn't allow us to get a full
  appreciation of the power of regular expressions.
  Before we see regular expressions in use, we
  shall first see how they are constructed.

46
Anatomy of a Regular Expression

• A regular expression is a sequence of
• Literal Characters Literal characters match only
  themselves. Examples of literals are letters,
  digits and most special characters (see below for
  the exceptions).
• Wildcards Wildcard characters match any
  character. Within a regular expression, a period
  (.) matches any character, be it a space, a
  letter, a digit, punctuation, anything.
• Modifiers A modifier alters the meaning of the
  immediately preceding pattern character. For
  example, the expression abc matches the
  strings ac, abc, abbc, abbbc, and so on,
  because the asterisk () is a modifier that
  means any number of (including zero). Thus, our
  pattern means to match any sequence of characters
  consisting of one a, a (possibly empty) series
  of b characters, and a final c character.
• Anchors Anchors establish the context for the
  pattern, such as "the beginning of a line", or
  "the end of a word". For example, the expression
  cat would match any occurrence of the three
  letters, while cat would only match lines that
  begin cat.

47
Taking Literals Literally

• Literals are straightforward because each literal
  character in a regular expressions matches one,
  and only one, copy of itself in the searched
  text. Uppercase characters are distinct from
  lowercase characters, so that A does not match
  a.
• Wildcards
• The "dot" wildcard
• The character . is used as a placeholder, to
  match one of any character. In the following
  example, the pattern matches any occurrence of
  the literal characters x and s, separated by
  exactly two other characters.

48
Bracket Expressions Ranges of Literal
Characters

• Normally a literal character in a regex pattern
  matches exactly one occurrence of itself in the
  searched text. Suppose we want to search for the
  string hello regardless of how it is
  capitalized we want to match Hello and HeLLo
  as well. How might we do that?
• A regex feature called a bracket expression
  solves this problem neatly. A bracket expression
  is a range of literals enclosed in square
  brackets ( and ). For example, the regex
  pattern Hh is a character range that matches
  exactly one character either an uppercase H or
  a lowercase h letter. Notice that it doesn't
  matter how large the set of characters within the
  range is, the set matches exactly one character,
  if it matches any at all. A bracket expression
  that matches the set of lowercase vowels could be
  written aeiou and would match exactly one
  vowel.
• In the following example, bracket expressions are
  used to find words from the file
  /usr/share/dict/words. In the first case, the
  first five words that contain three consecutive
  (lowercase) vowels are printed. In the second
  case, the first 5 words that contain lowercase
  letters in the pattern of vowel-consonant-vowel-co
  nsonant-vowel-consonant are printed.

49
Bracket Expressions Ranges of Literal
Characters

• If the first character of a bracket expression is
  a , the interpretation is inverted, and the
  bracket expression will match any single
  occurrence of a character not included in the
  range. For example, the expression aeiou
  would match any character that is not a vowel.
  The following example first lists words which
  contain three consecutive vowels, and secondly
  lists words which contain three consecutive
  consonant-vowel pairs.

50
Range Expressions vs. Character Classes Old
School and New School

• Another way to express a character range is by
  giving the start- and end-letters of the sequence
  this way a-d would match any character from
  the set a, b, c or d. A typical usage of this
  form would be 0-9 to represent any single
  digit, or A-Z to represent all capital
  letters.

51
Range Expressions vs. Character Classes Old
School and New School

• As an alternative to such quandaries, modern
  regular expression make use character classes.
  Character classes match any single character,
  using language specific conventions to decide if
  a given character is uppercase or lowercase, or
  if it should be considered part of the alphabet
  or punctuation. The following table lists some
  supported character classes, and the ASCII
  equivalent range expression, where appropriate.

52
Range Expressions vs. Character Classes Old
School and New School

• Character classes avoid problems you may run into
  when using regular expressions on systems that
  use different character encoding schemes where
  letters are ordered differently. For example,
  suppose you were to run the command
• On a Red Hat Enterprise Linux system, this would
  match every word in the file, not just those that
  contain capital letters as one might assume. This
  is because in unicode (utf-8), the character
  encoding scheme that RHEL uses, characters are
  alphabetized case-insensitively, so that A-Z is
  equivalent to AaBbCc...etc.

53
Range Expressions vs. Character Classes Old
School and New School

• On older systems, though, a different character
  encoding scheme is used where alphabetization is
  done case-sensitively. On such systems A-Z
  would be equivalent to ABC...etc. Character
  classes avoid this pitfall. You can run
• on any system regardless of the encoding scheme
  being used and it will only match lines that
  contain capital letters.
• For more details about the predefined range
  expressions, consult the grep manual page. For
  more information on character encoding schemes
  under Linux, refer back to chapter 8.3. To learn
  about how character encoding schemes are used to
  support other languages in Red Hat Enterprise
  Linux, begin with the locale manual page.

54
Common Modifier Characters

• We saw a common usage of a regex modifier in our
  earlier example abc to match an a and c
  character with some number of b letters in
  between. The character changed the
  interpretation of the literal b character from
  matching exactly one letter to matching any
  number of b's.
• Here are a list of some common modifier
  characters
• b? The question mark (?) means either one or
  none the literal character is considered to be
  optional in the searched text. For example, the
  regex pattern ab?c matches the strings ac,
  and abc, but not abbc.
• b The asterisk () modifier means any number
  of (including zero) of the preceding literal
  character. The regex pattern abc matches the
  strings ac, abc, abbc, and so on.

55
Common Modifier Characters

• b The plus () modifier means one or more,
  so the regex pattern b matches a non-empty
  sequence of b's. The regex pattern abc matches
  the strings abc and abbc, but does not match
  ac
• bm,n The brace modifier is used to specify a
  range of between m and n occurrences of the
  preceding character. The regex pattern b2,4
  would match abbc and abbbc, and abbbbc, but
  not abc or abbbbbc.
• bn With only one integer, the brace modifier is
  used to specify exactly n occurrences for the
  preceding character.

56
Common Modifier Characters

• In the following example, egrep prints lines from
  /usr/share/dict/words that contain patterns which
  start with a (capital or lowercase) a, might or
  might not next have a (lowercase) b, but then
  definitely follow with a (lowercase) a.
• The following example prints lines which contain
  patterns which start al, then use the .
  wildcard to specify 0 or more occurrences of any
  character, followed by the pattern bra.

57
Common Modifier Characters

• Notice we found variations on the words algebra
  and calibrate. For the former, the . expression
  matched ge, while for the latter, it matched
  the letter i.
• The expression ., which is interpreted as "0
  or more of any character", shows up often in
  regex patterns, acting as the "stretchable glue"
  between two patterns of significance.
• As a subtlety, we should note that the modifier
  characters are greedy they always match the
  longest possible input string. For example, given
  the regex pattern

58
Anchored Searches

• Four additional search modifier characters are
  available
• foo A caret () matches the beginning of a
  line. Our example foo matches the string foo
  only when it is at the beginning of a line
• foo A dollar sign () matches the end of a
  line. Our example foo matches the string foo
  only at the end of a line, immediately before the
  newline character.
• \ltfoo\gt By themselves, the less than sign (lt)
  and the greater than sign (gt) are literals.
  Using the backslash character to escape them
  transforms them into meaning first of a word
  and end of a word, respectively. Thus the
  pattern \gtcat\lt matches the word cat but not
  the word catalog.
• You will frequently see both and used
  together. The regex pattern foo matches a
  whole line that contains only foo and would not
  match that line if it contained any spaces.
• The \lt and \gt are also usually used as pairs.

59
Anchored Searches

• In the following an example, the first search
  lists all lines that contain the letters ion
  anywhere on the line. The second search only
  lists lines which end in ion.

60
Coming to Terms with Regex Grouping

• The same way that you can use parenthesis to
  group terms within a mathematical expression, you
  also use parenthesis to collect regular
  expression pattern specifiers into groups. This
  lets the modifier characters ?, and
  apply to groups of regex specifiers instead of
  only the immediately preceding specifier.
• Suppose we need a regular expression to match
  either foo or foobar. We could write the
  regex as foo(bar)? and get the desired results.
  This lets the ? modifier apply to the whole
  string bar instead of only the preceding r
  character.
• Grouping regex specifiers using parenthesis
  becomes even more flexible when the pipe symbol
  () is used to separate alternative patterns.
  Using alternatives, we could rewrite our previous
  example as (foofoobar). Writing this as
  foofoobar is simpler and works just as well,
  because just like mathematics, regex specifiers
  have precedence. While you are learning, always
  enclose your groups in parenthesis.

61
Coming to Terms with Regex Grouping

• In the following example, the first search prints
  all lines from the file /usr/share/dict/words
  which contain four consecutive vowels (compare
  the syntax to that used when first introducing
  range expressions, above). The second search
  finds words that contain a double o or a double
  e, followed (somewhere) by a double e.

62
Escaping Meta-Characters

• Sometimes you need to match a character that
  would ordinarily be interpreted as a regular
  expression wildcard or modifier character. To
  temporarily disable the special meaning of these
  characters, simply escape them using the
  backslash (\) character. For example, the regex
  pattern cat. would match the letters cat
  followed by any character cats or catchup.
  To match only the letters cat. at the end of a
  sentence, use the regex pattern cat\. to
  disable interpreting the period as a wildcard
  character.
• Note one distracting exception to this rule. When
  the backslash character precedes a lt or gt
  character, it enables the special interpretation
  (anchoring the beginning or ending of a word)
  instead of disabling the special interpretation.
  Shudder. It even gets worse - see the footnote at
  the bottom of the following table.

63
Summary of Linux Regular Expression Syntax

• The following table summarizes regular expression
  syntax, and identifies which components are found
  in basic regular expression syntax, and which are
  found only in the extended regular expression
  syntax.

64
Summary of Linux Regular Expression Syntax

• The following table summarizes regular expression
  syntax, and identifies which components are found
  in basic regular expression syntax, and which are
  found only in the extended regular expression
  syntax.

65
Regular Expressions are NOT File Globbing

• When first encountering regular expressions,
  students understandably confuse regular
  expressions with pathname expansion (file
  globbing). Both are used to match patterns in
  text. Both share similar metacharacters (,
  ?, ...), etc.). However, they are
  distinctly different. The following table
  compares and contrasts regular expressions and
  file globbing.

66
Regular Expressions are NOT File Globbing

• In the following example, the first argument is a
  regular expression, specifying text which starts
  with an l and ends .conf, while the second
  argument is a file glob which specifies all files
  in the /etc directory whose filename starts with
  l and ends .conf.
• Take a close look at the second line of output.
  Why was it matched by the specified regular
  expression?
• Why does the line containing the text krb5.conf
  match the expression? The l is found way back
  in the word default!
• In a similar vain, when specifying regular
  expressions on the bash command line, care must
  be taken to quote or escape the regex
  meta-characters, lest they be expanded away by
  the bash shell with unexpected results. In all of
  the examples found in this discussion, the first
  argument to the egrep command is protected with
  single quotes for just this reason.

67
Where to Find More Information About Regular
Expressions

• We have barely scratched the surface of the
  usefulness of regular expressions. The
  explanation we have provided will be adequate for
  your daily needs, but even so, regular
  expressions offer much more power, making even
  complicated text searches simple to perform.
• For more online information about regular
  expressions, you should check
• The regex(7) manual page.
• The grep(1) manual page.

68
Examples

• Regular Expression Modifiers

69
Chapter 4.  Everything Sorting sort and uniq

• Key Concepts
• The sort command sorts data alphabetically.
• sort -n sorts numerically.
• sort -u sorts and removes duplicates.
• sort -k and -t sorts on a specific field in
  patterned data.

70
The sort Command

• Sorting is the process of arranging records into
  a specified sequence. Examples of sorting would
  be arranging a list of usernames into
  alphabetical order, or a set of file sizes into
  numeric order.
• In its simplest form, the sort command will
  alphabetically sort lines (including any
  whitespace or control characters which are
  encountered). The sort command uses the local
  locale (language definition) to determine the
  order of the characters (referred to as the
  collating order). In the following example,
  madonna first displays the contents of the file
  /etc/sysconfig/mouse as is, and then sorts the
  contents of the file alphabetically.

71
Modifying the Sort Order

• By default, the sort command sorts lines
  alphabetically. The following table lists command
  line switches which can be used to modify this
  default sort order.

72
Examples of sort

• As an example, madonna is examining the file
  sizes of all files that start with an m in the
  /var/log directory.
• She next sorts the output with the sort command.

73
Examples of sort

• Without being told otherwise, the sort command
  sorted the lines alphabetically (with 1952 coming
  before 20). Realizing this is not what she
  intended, madonna adds the -n command line
  switch.

74
Examples of sort

• Better, but madonna would prefer to reverse the
  sort order, so that the largest files come first.
  She adds the -r command line switch
• Why ls -1?
• Why was the -1 command line switch given to the
  ls command in the first example, but not the
  others? By default, when the ls command is using
  a terminal for standard out, it will group the
  filenames in multiple columns for easy
  readability. When the ls command is using a pipe
  or file for standard out, however, it will print
  the files one file per line. The -1 command line
  switch forces this behavior for for terminal
  output as well.

75
Specifying Sort Keys

• In the previous examples, the sort command
  performed its sort based on the first characters
  found on a line. Often, formatted data is not
  arranged so conveniently. Fortunately, the sort
  command allows users to specify which column of
  tabular data to use for determining the sort
  order, or, in more formally, which column should
  be used as the sort key.
• The following table of command line switches can
  be used to determine the sort key.

76
Sorting Output by a Particular Column

• As an example, suppose madonna wanted to
  reexamine her log files, using the long format of
  the ls command. She tries simply sorting her
  output numerically.
• Now that the sizes are no longer reported at the
  beginning of the line, she has difficulty.
  Instead, she repeats her sort using the -k
  command line switch to sort her output by the 5th
  column, producing the desired output.

77
Specifying Multiple Sort Keys

• Next, madonna is examining the file /etc/fdprm,
  which tables low level formatting parameters for
  floppy drives. She uses the grep command to
  extract the data from the file, stripping away
  comments and blank lines.

78
Specifying Multiple Sort Keys

• She next sorts the data numerically, using the
  5th column as her key.

79
Specifying Multiple Sort Keys

• Her data is successfully sorted using the 5th
  column, with the formats specifying 40 tracks
  grouped at the top, and 80 tracks grouped at the
  bottom. Within these groups, however, she would
  like to sort the data by the 3rd column. She adds
  an additional -k command line switch to the sort
  command, specifying the third column as her
  secondary key.
• Now the data has been sorted primarily by the
  fifth column. For rows with identical fifth
  columns, the third column has been used to
  determine the final order. An arbitrary number of
  keys can be specified by adding more -k command
  line switches.

80
Specifying the Field Separator

• The above examples have demonstrated how to sort
  data using a specified field as the sort key. In
  all of the examples, fields were separated by
  whitespace (i.e., a series of spaces and/or
  tabs). Often in Linux (and Unix), some other
  method is used to separate fields. Consider, for
  example, the /etc/passwd file.

81
Specifying the Field Separator

• The lines are structured into seven fields each,
  but the fields are separated using a instead
  of whitespace. With the -t command line switch,
  the sort command can be instructed to use some
  specified character (such as a ) to separate
  fields.
• In the following, madonna uses the sort command
  with the -t command line switch to sort the first
  10 lines of the /etc/passwd file by home
  directory (the 6th field).
• The user bin, with a home directory of /bin, is
  now at the top, and the user mail, with a home
  directory of /var/spool/mail, is at the bottom.

82
Summary

• In summary, we have seen that the sort command
  can be used to sort structured data, using the -k
  command line switch to specify the sort field
  (perhaps more than once), and the -t command line
  switch to specify the field delimiter.
• The -k command line switch can receive more
  sophisticated arguments, which serve to specify
  character positions within a field, or customize
  sort options for individual fields. See the
  sort(1) man page for details.

83
The uniq Command

• The uniq program is used to identify, count, or
  remove duplicate records in sorted data. If given
  command line arguments, they are interpreted as
  filenames for files on which to operate. If no
  arguments are provided, the uniq command operates
  on standard in. Because the uniq command only
  works on already sorted data, it is almost always
  used in conjunction with the sort command.
• The uniq command uses the following command line
  switches to qualify its behavior.

84
The uniq Command

• In order to understand the uniq command's
  behavior, we need repetitive data on which to
  operate. The following python script simulates
  the rolling of three six sided dice, writing the
  sum of 100 roles once per line. The user madonna
  makes the script executable, and then records the
  output in a file called trial1.

85
Reducing Data to Unique Entries

• Now, madonna would like to analyze the data. She
  begins by sorting the data and piping the output
  through the uniq command.
• Without any command line switches, the uniq
  command has removed duplicate entries, reducing
  the data from 100 lines to only 15. Easily,
  madonna sees that the data looks reasonable the
  sum of every combination for three six sided die
  is represented, with the exception of 3. Because
  only one combination of the dice would yield a
  sum of 3 (all ones), she expects it to be a
  relatively rare occurrence.

86
Counting Instances of Data

• A particularly convenient command line switch for
  the uniq command is -c, or --count. This causes
  the uniq command to count the number of
  occurrences of a particular record, prepending
  the result to the record on output.
• In the following example, madonna uses the uniq
  command to reproduce its previous output, this
  time prepending the number of occurrences of each
  entry in the file.

87
Counting Instances of Data

• As would be expected (by a statistician, at
  least), the largest and smallest numbers have
  relatively few occurrences, while the
  intermediate numbers occur more numerously. The
  first column can be summed to 100 to confirm that
  the uniq command identified every occurrence.

88
Identifying Unique or Repeated Data with uniq

• Sometimes, people are just interested in
  identifying unique or repeated data. The -d and
  -u command line switches allow the uniq command
  to do just that. In the first case, madonna
  identifies the dice combinations that occur only
  once. In the second case, she identifies
  combinations that are repeated at least once.

89
QuestionsChapter 4.  Everything Sorting sort
and uniq

• 1 and 2

90
Chapter 5  Extracting and Assembling Text cut
and paste

• Key Concepts
• The cut command extracts texts from text files,
  based on columns specified by bytes, characters,
  or fields.
• The paste command merges two text files line by
  line.

91
The cut Command

• Extracting Text with cut
• The cut command extracts columns of text from a
  text file or stream. Imagine taking a sheet of
  paper that lists rows of names, email addresses,
  and phone numbers. Rip the page vertically twice
  so that each column is on a separate piece. Hold
  onto the middle piece which contains email
  addresses, and throw the other two away. This is
  the mentality behind the cut command.
• The cut command interprets any command line
  arguments as filenames of files on which to
  operate, or operates on the standard in stream if
  none are provided. In order to specify which
  bytes, characters, or fields are to be cut, the
  cut command must be called with one of the
  following command line switches.

92
The cut Command

• The list arguments are actually a comma-separated
  list of ranges. Each range can take one of the
  following forms.

93
Extracting text by Character Position with cut
-c

• With the -c command line switch, the list
  specifies a character's position in a line of
  text, where the first character is character
  number 1. As an example, the file
  /proc/interrupts lists device drivers, the
  interrupt request (IRQ) line to which they
  attach, and the number of interrupts which have
  occurred on that IRQ line. (Do not be concerned
  if you are not yet familiar with the concepts of
  a device driver or IRQ line. Focus instead on how
  cut is used to manipulate the data).

94
Extracting text by Character Position with cut
-c

• Because the characters in the file are formatted
  into columns, the cut command can extract
  particular regions of interest. If just the IRQ
  line and the number of interrupts were of
  interest, the rest of the file could be cut away,
  as in the following example. (Note the use of the
  grep command to first reduce the file to just the
  lines pertaining to interrupt lines.)

95
Extracting text by Character Position with cut
-c

• Alternately, if only the device drivers bound to
  particular IRQ lines were of interest, multiple
  ranges of characters could be specified.
• If the character specifications were reversed,
  can the cut command be used to rearrange the
  ordering of the data?
• The answer is no. Text will appear only once, in
  the same order it appears in the source, even if
  the range specifications are overlapping or
  rearranged.

96
Extracting Fields of Text with cut -f

• The cut command can also be used to extract text
  that is structured not by character position, but
  by some delimiter character, such as a TAB or
  . The following command line switches can be
  used to further qualify what is meant by a field,
  or more selective select source lines.

97
Extracting Fields of Text with cut -f

• For example, the file /usr/share/hwdata/pcitable
  lists over 3000 vendor IDs and device IDs (which
  can be probed from PCI devices), and the kernel
  modules and text strings which should be
  associated with them, separated by tabs.

98
Extracting Fields of Text with cut -f

• The following example extracts the third and
  fourth column, using the default TAB character to
  separate fields. Note the use of the -s command
  line switch, which effective strips the header
  lines (which do not contain any TABs).

99
Extracting Fields of Text with cut -f

• As another example, suppose we wanted to obtain a
  list of the most commonly referenced kernel
  modules in the file. We could use a similar cut
  command, along with tricks learned in the last
  Lesson, to obtain a quick listing of the number
  of times each kernel module appears.
• Many of the entries are obviously unknown, or
  intentionally ignored, but we do see that the
  aic7xxx SCSI driver, and the e100 Ethernet card
  driver, are commonly used.

100
Extracting Text by Byte Position with cut -b

• The -b command line switch is used to specify
  which text to extract by bytes. Extracting text
  using the -b command line switch is very similar
  in spirit as using -c. In fact, when dealing with
  text encoded using the ASCII or one of the ISO
  8859 character sets (such as Latin-1), the two
  are identical. The -b switch differs from -c,
  however, when using character sets with variable
  length encoding, such as UTF-8 (a standard
  character set on which many people are
  converging, and the default in Red Hat Enterprise
  Linux).
• Usually, cut -c is the proper way to use the cut
  command, and cut -b will only be necessary for
  technical situations.
• Note
• Notice the inconsistent nomenclature between with
  wc and cut. With wc -c, the wc command really
  returns the number of bytes contained in a
  string, while cut -c measures text in characters.
  Unfortunately, the wc command makes no equivalent
  distinction made between characters and bytes.

101
The paste Command

• The paste command is used to combine multiple
  files into a single output. Recall the fictional
  piece of paper which listed rows of names, email
  addresses, and phone numbers. After tearing the
  paper into three columns, what if we had glued
  the first back to the third, leaving a piece of
  paper listing only names and phone numbers? This
  is the concept behind the paste command.
• The paste command expects a series of filenames
  as arguments. The paste command will read the
  first line from each file, join the contents of
  each line inserting a TAB character in between,
  and write the resulting single line to standard
  out. It then continues with the second line from
  each file.

102
The paste Command

• Consider the following two files as an example.
• If we had more than two files, the first line of
  each file would become the first line of the
  output. The second output line would contain the
  second lines of each input file, obtained in the
  order we gave them on the command line. As a
  convenience, the filename - can be supplied on
  the command line. For this "file", the paste
  command would read from standard in.

103
The paste Command
104
ExamplesChapter 5.  Extracting and Assembling
Text cut and paste

• Handling Free-Format Records
• In a free-format record layout, input record
  items are identified by their position on the
  line, not by their character position. Input
  fields are expected to be separated by exactly
  one TAB character, but any character that does
  not appear in the data items themselves may be
  used. Each occurrence of the delimiter separates
  a field.
• Our favorite example file /etc/passwd has fields
  separated by exactly one colon () character.
  Field 1 is the account name and field 7 gives the
  shell program used. Using the cut command, we
  could output a new file with just the account
  name and the shell name

105
Chapter 6.  Tracking differences diff

• Key Concepts
• The diff command summarizes the differences
  between two files.
• The diff command supports a wide variety of
  output formats, which can be chosen using various
  command line switches. The most commonly used of
  these is the unified format.
• The diff command can be told to ignore certain
  types of differences, such as changes in white
  space or capitalization.
• diff -r recursively summarizes the differences
  between two directories.
• When comparing directories, the diff command can
  be told to ignore files whose filenames match
  specified patterns.

106
Chapter 6.  Tracking differences diff

• The diff Command
• The diff command is designed to compare two files
  that are similar, but not identical, and generate
  output that describes exactly how they differ.
  The diff command is commonly used to track
  changes to text files, such as reports, web
  pages, shell scripts, or C source code. Also,
  utilities coexist with the diff command, so that
  given a version of a file, and the output of the
  diff command comparing it to some other version,
  the file can be brought up to date automatically.
  Most notable of these commands is the patch
  command.

107
Chapter 6.  Tracking differences diff

• We first introduce the diff command by way of
  example. In the open source community,
  documentation generally sacrifices correctness of
  spelling or grammar for timeliness, as
  demonstrated in the following README.pam_ftp
  file.
• Noticing that the words address and addresses are
  misspelled, blondie sets out to apply changes,
  first by correcting the misspelled words, and
  secondly