Presupposition ??

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Presupposition??

• Professor Shaozhong Liu, Ph.D. (Pragmatics) /
  Ph.D. (Higher Education)
• College of Foreign Studies, Guilin University of
  Electronic Technology
• Homepage www.gxnu.edu.cn/Personal/szliu
• Blog cyrusliu.blog.163.com
• Email shaozhong_at_hotmail.com

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Objectives and SLOs

• 1) Objectives
• To familiarize students with the concept
• To illustrate it with examples
• To discuss its role in Pragmatics
• 2) Student learning outcomes (SLOs)
• Be able to define the concept
• Be able to use examples to illustrate the concept
• Be able to speak and write with presuppositions.

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3 sentence types in human language

• Declaratives (declarative sentences) typically
  functioning as statements in other words, in
  declaring something, we state something. E.g.
• 1) You run away.
• Which is structurally analyzed as
• Subject Verb(al phrase)

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• Imperatives (imperative sentences) typically
  functioning as commands in other words, in
  utterings an imperative, we give a command or
  order someone to do something. Different from
  declaratives, imperatives have no subject
  present, though it is understood as you.
  E.g.
• 2) Run away!
• Which is structurally analyzed as
• (Subject implied you the hearer) Verb(al phrase)
  

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• Interrogatives (interrogative sentences)
  typically functioning as questions, which fall
  under two forms, general and special, with the
  former answerable with yes or no and the
  latter begun with wh- words and answerable with
  specific information. E.g.
• 3) Did you run away?
• 4) Why did you run away?
• Pedagogically, general questions are more fit for
  developing beginners L2 competence while special
  questions are more productive in generating L2
  competence in intermediate-advanced learners.

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Distinguish sentence types

• 1) Abraham Lincoln is the current president of
  the USA.
• 2) The Eiffel Tower is in Paris.
• 3) A car is an automobile.
• 4) Have a cookie.
• 5) Be careful of the crumbs.
• 6) Where was Abraham Lincoln born?
• 7) How much did the car cost?
• 8) Did you get a look at my face when I took your
  purse?

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Sentence types and meaning understanding one
effort, 2 tools.

• Inference is absolute, though its effort varies
  in terms of levels of sentence difficulty and who
  the inferer is.
• 2 tools for the inferring effort entailing and
  presupposing
• Sentences may entail various meanings, but its
  people who read the entailments judge, interpret,
  and assign the actual meaning.
• Sentences may presuppose meanings (propositions),
  but its people who read the presuppositions
  judge, interpret and assign the actual meaning.

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• Entailments are limited to declaratives or
  statements, whose understanding depends on 1) our
  semantic knowledge, and 2) our worldly knowledge.
  
• If the entailments match with our above
  knowledge, they are true if not, false. Hence,
• 1) My mother is a woman. (Is semantically true)
• 2) My mother is a doctor. (Can be true and false,
  depending on what is happening in the world.)

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• Sentences like my mother is a doctor and did
  you get a good look at my face when I took your
  purse? are syntactically different (being of
  different structural types) but semantically
  associate with concrete situations or realities.
  Put another way, they need to be processed with
  our worldly knowledge, hence the term
  truth-value or truth-conditional value, which
  goes like this if it matches with the reality,
  it is true otherwise, false.

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• Necessity to introduce the presupposition tool
• the entailments of a sentence are other
  sentences which automatically true if the
  original sentence is true. However, . Only
  declarative sentences can be true or false.
  Does this mean that we cannot draw some very
  strong inferences from utterances based on
  imperative and interrogative sentences? (Peccei,
  1999/2000,p.18)
• Regardless of sentence types, which is a
  perspective of understanding, the subsequent
  examples all contain inferences obvious to make

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• 1) Where has Faye looked for the keys?
• --? Faye has looked for the keys.
• 2) Did you buy this awful wine?
• --? This wine is awful.
• 3) Dont sit on Annies sofa.
• --? Annie has a sofa.
• 4) Stop being lazy.
• --? You are being lazy.
• 5) Lucy knows that George is a crook.
• --? George is a crook.
• ALL THESE OBVIOUS INFERENCES ARE EASY TO MAKE,
  BECAUSE THE ORIGINAL PRESUPPOSES THE LATTER!

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Presupposition

• Since not all utterances consist of full
  declarative sentences, presupposition can be a
  useful concept when analyzing speaker meaning.
  (Peccei, 1999/2000, p.19)
• Broad and speaker-oriented definition
  Presupposition is anything the speaker assumes
  to be true before making the utterance. (Peccei,
  1999/2000, p.19)
• Narrow and sentence-oriented definition
  Presupposition is a necessary precondition for
  the sentence to be true.

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• In many discussions of the concept,
  presupposition is treated as a relationship
  between two propositions. If we say that the
  sentence in a contains the proposition p and the
  sentence in b contains the proposition q, then,
  using symbol .. To mean presupposes, we can
  represent the relationship as in c
• a. Marys dog is cute. ( p)
• b. Mary has a dog. (q)
• c. p gtgt q
• (Yule, 1996/2000, p.26)

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• Interestingly, when we produce the opposite of
  the sentence by negating it (NOT p), we find
  that the relationship of presupposition doesnt
  change. That is, the same proposition q continues
  to be presupposed by NOT p, as shown below
• a. Marys dog isnt cute. ( NOT p
• b. Mary has a dog. ( q)
• NOT p gtgt q
• This property of presupposition is generally
  described as constancy under negation. Basically,
  it means that the presupposition of a statement
  will remain constant (i.e. still true) even when
  that statement is negated. (Yule, 1996/2000, p.26)

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• Pecceis definition Presupposition is an
  inference about what is assumed to be true in
  the utterance rather directly asserted to be
  true. (Peccei, 1999/2000, p.19)
• Lius definition Presupposition logical
  meaning of a sentence or meanings logically
  associated with or entailed by a sentence. (Liu,
  2000 2011)
• Hence
• Annie has a sofa directly asserts Annie has a
  sofa.
• Dont sit on Annies sofa presupposes Annie
  has a sofa. (Peccei, 1999/2000, p.19)

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Presupposition triggers

• Presupposition triggers words and structures
  that seem to suggest an assumed meaning or
  linking relationship. E.g.
• Mike might find the chocolate cake in the
  kitchen. / Mike might find a chocolate cake in
  the kitchen.
• Is Mike giving Annie that chocolate cake? / Is
  Mike giving Annie a chocolate cake?
• Did Mike hide a chocolate cake? / Did Mike hide
  Annies chocolate cake?
• What differences are there between the 3 pairs of
  sentences?

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• What we notice is that in each of those
  utterances the noun cake is part of a larger noun
  phrase. The words the, that, this, these, those,
  and possessives like Annies, my, your, etc. make
  it a definite noun phrase and trigger this very
  basic kind of presupposition. (Peccei,
  1999/2000, p.20)
• Notice that possessives lead to a particularly
  strong presupposition about the existence of the
  chocolate cake, and in addition lead to the
  presupposition that Annie has a chocolate cake.
  This basic type of presupposition is sometimes
  called an existential presupposition. (Peccei,
  1999/2000, p.20)

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• Verbal triggers regret, pretend, stop
• 1) Steve regrets buying a dog -? Steve bought a
  dog.
• 2) Meridyth pretends shes a rock star.
  -?Meridyth is not a rock star.
• 3) Ed should stop eating raw oysters. -? Ed eats
  raw oysters.
• The use of regret in (1) triggers the
  presupposition that what follows is fact.
  (Others verbs that can behave like this are know,
  realize, discover, find out, etc. As well as
  constructions like Im aware that and its
  strange that ) (p.22)

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• The use of pretend in (2) triggers the
  presupposition that what follows is fiction.
  (Other verbs that can behave like this are
  imagine and dream and constructions like If I
  were as in If I were the Prime Minister, Id
  ban presuppositions.) (p.22)
• The use of stop in (3) triggers the
  presupposition that the action was going on
  before. (Other verbs that can behave like this
  are continue and keep. On the other hand, start
  and begin can presuppose that the action was not
  going one before.)

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Presupposition use in real life

• Youll want DomeBeGone, my revolutionary cure
  for baldness.
• My revolutionary cure lurk several dubious
  propositions which are simply assumed to be true
• There is a cure for baldness.
• The cure is revolutionary.
• I have this cure. (Peccei, 1999/2000, p.21)

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• Presupposition is widely and most effectively
  present in persuasive language, such as courtroom
  and advertising.
• Advertisers are not allowed to directly assert
  claims about their products or their competitors
  for which they have no evidence. However they can
  generally get away with making indirect
  assertions via presupposition. More examples in
  Ex.3.8 and 3.10.
• In the courtroom, where the stakes are much
  higher than in advertising, lawyers examining
  witnesses are often not allowed to make an
  indirect assertion via presupposition, unless it
  has been established by previous evidence.
  (Peccei, 1999/2000, p.21) More examples in Ex.
  3.7 and 3.9.

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• Wh-words like when, why, how, etc. can trigger
  supposition both when they are used to ask a
  question and when they introduce a subordinate
  clause. E.g.
• 1) When did Mike smash the television?
• 2) Why did Mike smash the television?
• 3) I was eating popcorn when Mike smashed the
  television.
• 4) I dont understand why Mike smashed the
  television.
• 5) I wonder how Mike smashed the television.

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Types of presupposition

• Potential presuppositions refer to a large
  number of words, phrases, and structures that
  speakers use to assume things and that can only
  become actual presuppositions in contexts with
  speakers. (Yule, 1996/2000, p.27) (though Peccei
  (1999/2000, 22) asserts that presuppositions can
  be drawn even when there is little or no
  surrounding context.)

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• Existential presuppositions Refer to the use of
  possessives that are associated with a
  presupposition of existence. By using any of the
  expressions as in below, the speaker is assumed
  to be committed to the existence of the existence
  of the entities named
• The King of Sweden, the cat, the girl next door,
  the Counting Crows
• Yule (1996/2000, p.27)

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• Factive presuppositions Refers to presupposed
  information following a verb like know
  (realize, regret, be aware, odd, glad) suggesting
  a fact. E.g.
• a. Everybody knows that John is gay. (p)
• b. Everybody doesnt know that John is gay. (NOT
  p)
• c. John is gay. ( q)
• d. p gtgt Q NOT p gtgt q
• e. She didnt realize he was ill. (gtgtHe was ill)
• f. We regret telling him. (gtgt We told him)
• g. I wasnt aware that she was married. (gtgt She
  was married)
• h. It isnt odd that he left early. (gtgt He left
  early)
• i. Im glad that its over. (gtgt Its over)

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• Lexical presuppositions Refer to the use of one
  form with its asserted meaning conventionally
  interpreted with the presupposition that another
  (non-asserted) meaning is understood. E.g.
• Each time you say that someone managed to do
  something, the asserted meaning is that the
  person succeeded in some way. When you say that
  someone didnt manage, the asserted meaning is
  that the person did not succeed. In both cases,
  however, there is a presupposition (non-asserted)
  that the person tried to do that something. So,
  managed is conventionally interpreted as
  asserting succeeded and presupposing tried.
  (Yule, 1996/2000, p.28)
• a. He stopped smoking. (gtgt He used to smoke)
• b. They started complaining. (gtgtThey werent
  complaining before)
• c. Youre late again. (gtgt You were late before)

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• In the case of lexical presupposition, the
  speakers use of a particular expression is taken
  to presuppose another (unstated) concept, whereas
  in the case of a factive presupposition, the use
  of a particular expression is taken to presuppose
  the truth of the information that is after it.
  (Yule, 1996/2000, p.28)

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• Structural presuppositions Refer to the case
  that certain sentences structures have been
  analyzed as conventionally and regularly
  presupposing that part of the structure is
  already assumed to be true. For example, the
  wh-question construction in English is
  conventionally interpreted with the
  presupposition that the information after the
  wh-form is already known to be the case. (Yule,
  1996/200o, pp.28-29)
• a. When did he leave? (gtgt He left)
• b. Where did you buy the bike? (gtgt You bought the
  bike)

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• Non-factive presuppositions Refer to
  presuppositions introduced by verbs like dream,
  imagine, and pretend, etc. that are assumed
  not to be true. E.g.
• a. I dreamed that I was rich. (gtgt I was not rich)
• b. We imagined we were in Hawaii. (gtgt We were not
  in Hawaii)
• c. He pretends to be ill. (gtgt He is not ill)

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• Counter-factual presuppositions Refer to
  structures whose presuppositions are not only
  true, but are opposite of what is true, or
  contrary to facts.
• A conditional structure of the type below,
  generally called a counterfactual conditional,
  presupposes that the information in the if-clause
  is not true at the time of utterance. E.g.
• If you were my friend, you would have helped me.
  (gtgtYou are not my friend)

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Presupposition as pragmatic strategy and
presuppositional competence development

• Peccei, p.23
• Ex. 3.7 In each case assume that the judge has
  sustained an objection to the question. What
  presupposition(s) might have been objected to?
• Ex. 3.9 Try your hand at being a tricky lawyer.
  Write some questions that attempt to sneak in the
  following facts via presupposition. Heres a
  sample question for The defendant drove his car
  into a shop window Did you brake before you
  drove your car into the shop window? Notice how
  if the defendant just answers the question,
  either Yes or No, he accepts the truth of the
  presupposition and admits that he drove his car
  into the shop window.

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• Ex. 3.8 In each of the following advertisement
  extracts, what claim or claims are being made by
  presupposition rather than directly asserted?
  (The names have been changed to protect the
  innocent.)
• Ex. 3.10 Try your hand at being a tricky
  advertiser. Below are completely unsubstantiated
  claims about various products. For each one,
  write a line of advertisement that slips in the
  claims via presupposition. For the purposes of
  this exercise use full sentences. Your sentences
  can be declaratives, interrogatives or
  imperatives. In fact, you will find
  interrogatives and imperatives particularly
  useful in some cases.

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Summary

• Presuppositions are inferences that are very
  closely linked to the words and grammatical
  structures actually used in the utterance, but
  they come from our knowledge about the way
  language users conventionally interpret these
  words and structures. (Peccei, 1999/2000, p.19)

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• Presuppositions are inferences about what is
  assumed in an utterance rather than directly
  asserted.
• Presuppositions are closely related to the words
  and grammatical structures that are actually used
  in the utterance and our knowledge about the way
  language users conventionally interpret them.
• Presuppositions can be drawn even when there is
  little or no surrounding context. (Peccei,
  1999/2000. p. 22)

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• Entailment vs. presupposition
• An entailment is something that logically
  follows from what is asserted in the sentence.
  Sentences, not speakers, have entailments.
  (Yule, 1996/2000, p.25)
• A presupposition is something the speaker
  assumes to be the case prior to making an
  utterance. Speakers, not sentences, have
  presuppositions. (Yule, 1996/2000, p.25)

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Further readings

• Leech, G. (1981). Semantics. (Chapter 14).
  Penguin Harmondsworth.
• Simpson, P. (1993). Language, Ideology and Point
  of View. (Chapter 5). London Routledge.
• Yule, G. (1996). Pragmatics. (pp.99-100) Oxford
  Oxford University Press.