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2
The Value Dimension of Policy Studies in Education

1. Stephen Ball indicates that Policy is clearly a
   matter of the authoritative allocation of
   values policies are the operational statements
   of values, statements of prescriptive intent
   (Kogan 1975 p.55). But values do not float free
   of their social context. We need to ask whose
   values are validated in policy, and whose are
   not. Thus, The authoritative allocation of values
   draws our attention to the centrality of power
   and control in the concept of policy (Prunty
   1985 p.135). Policies project images of an ideal
   society (education policies project definitions
   of what counts as education).(Ball, 1990, p. 3
   my emphases)

3
The Value Dimension of Policy Studies in Education

1. Emile Durkheim, one of the founding fathers of
   sociology, asserted in the first decade of the
   twentieth century, Each society sets up a
   certain idea of man, of what he should be, as
   much from the intellectual point of view as the
   physical and moral that this ideal is, to a
   degree, the same for all the citizens that
   beyond a certain point it becomes differentiated
   according to the particular milieux that every
   society contains in its structure.

4
The Value Dimension of Policy Studies in Education

• Emile Durkheim
• .. It is this ideal, at the same time one and
  various, that is the focus of education. Its
  function, then, is to arouse in the child (1) a
  certain number of physical and mental states that
  the society to which he belongs considers should
  not be lacking in any of its members (2) certain
  physical and mental states that the particular
  social group (caste, class, family, profession)
  considers, equally, ought to be found among all
  those who make it up. (Durkheim, 2006/1911, p.
  79-80 my emphasis)

5
The Value Dimension of Policy Studies in Education

1. The purpose of education, according to
   Aristotle, is to reproduce in each generation the
   type of character that will sustain the
   constitution a particular character for a
   particular constitution. But there are
   difficulties here. The members of society are
   unlikely to agree about what the constitution ,
   in Aristotles broad sense, actually is, or what
   it is becoming, or what it should be. Nor are
   they likely to agree about what character type
   will best sustain it or how that type might best
   be produced. (Walzer, 1983, P. 197)

6
The Value Dimension of Policy Studies in Education

1. What are the values and ideals that education
   policy strives to attained?

7
Value Inquiry An Integral Part of Policy Studies
of Education

• What is value? How to enquire it?
• D.N. Aspins formal definition of value
  Conduct, performances, situations, occurrence,
  states of affairs, production, all these is
  associated with the ways in which we perceive
  them, appraise them, judge them, and the way we
  are inclined towards or away from, attract to or
  repelled by. We choose them. We prefer them over
  other things in the same class of comparison. We
  want to follow their model or to replicate them.
  We want to emulate them. (Aspin, 1999, p.125)
  Simply put, value is the attributes endowed in an
  object which we find attractive, appreciative,
  desirable, adorable, pleasurable, etc.

8
Value Inquiry An Integral Part of Policy Studies
of Education

• What is value? How to enquire it?
• However, these desirable attributes may entail
  different understanding by different perspective
  in value inquiry.

9
Value Inquiry An Integral Part of Policy Studies
of Education

• What is value? How to enquire it?
• Hedonistic emotivists understanding Value can
  be construed simply as physical and/or
  psychological pleasures and enjoyments which a
  person experiences from the encounter of a state
  of affair, an object, a situation, or other
  persons. (MacIntyre, 2007, 11-12)

10
Value Inquiry An Integral Part of Policy Studies
of Education

• What is value? How to enquire it?
• Pragmatic and instrumental understanding From
  the perspective of pragmatism, any state of
  affairs or objects will be taken as valuable as
  long as they can bring about desirable outcomes.
  In short, they are any effective and efficient
  means, which fit with the practical calculation
  of instrumental rationality. (Taylor, 1985,
  Pp.21-23) This kind of value has been commonly
  called extrinsic value. An extrinsic value is
  valuable not for its own sake, but because it
  facilitates getting or accomplishing something
  that is valuable for its own sake. (Ellis, 1998,
  p.12)

11
Value Inquiry An Integral Part of Policy Studies
of Education

• What is value? How to enquire it?
• Reflective and critical understanding It refers
  to the evaluation which goes beyond the criteria
  of quantitative calculations of outcome. Instead,
  the state of affair under evaluation is
  critically assessed to see whether they possess
  some qualitative distinctions of good or worth of
  its own. Furthermore, the criteria of evaluation
  in use may also reflectively relate to the
  well-beings, mode of life or kind of person that
  the persons concerned ought to lead. (Taylor,
  1985 Dworkin, 1995) This kind of value has
  commonly called intrinsic value

12
Value Inquiry An Integral Part of Policy Studies
of Education

1. Constituents of critical and strong evaluation
   Charles Taylor has coined the term strong
   evaluation to kind of value inquiry which aims
   to substantiate an attribution of an intrinsic
   value to a state of affair, an object and even a
   person. He has outlined the numbers of
   constituents for such a strong-evaluation
   inquiry. (Taylor, 1985 see also Dworki, 1995)

13
Value Inquiry An Integral Part of Policy Studies
of Education

• Constituents of critical and strong evaluation
  .
• Justificatory with articulacy and depth The
  first constituent of a strong evaluation is that
  the evaluation must be supported with explicitly
  articulated justifications. Furthermore, these
  justifications must be grounded on ethical, moral
  and/or political validities and depth.

14
Value Inquiry An Integral Part of Policy Studies
of Education

• Constituents of critical and strong evaluation
  .
• Supported with sense of responsibility and
  agency A strong evaluative assertion must also
  be supported with human practices and actions,
  i.e. human agencies. Furthermore, those who are
  in support of the strong evaluative positions are
  not just paying lip services but are ready to
  bear the cost or even lost for its fulfillment

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Value Inquiry An Integral Part of Policy Studies
of Education

• Constituents of critical and strong evaluation
  .
• Embodied with notion of identity A person who
  are in support of a strong evaluative stance are
  most probably hold that value orientation
  continuously over time, consistently in various
  circumstances and coherently with the other
  aspects of his life. In other word, the value
  orientation becomes part of his own identity.

16
Value Inquiry An Integral Part of Policy Studies
of Education

• Constituents of critical and strong evaluation
  .
• Embedded in community The last constituents of
  strong-evaluation inquiry is to look beyond human
  agency or identity but into human community,
  which may be defined as a group of human agents
  who share and identify with a particular value
  stance. In other words, the strong and intrinsic
  value in question has been embedded into the
  lifeworld of a community.

17
Value Inquiry An Integral Part of Policy Studies
of Education

1. Levels of value inquiry Ronal Dworkin has made a
   distinction between three levels of value. He
   suggests that ethnics studies how people best
   manage their responsibility to live well, and
   personal morality what each as an individual owes
   other people. Political morality, in contrast,
   studies what we all together owe others as
   individuals when we act in and on behalf of that
   artificial collective person. (Dworkin, 2011,
   Pp. 327-8) Accordingly, value can be categorized
   into

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Value Inquiry An Integral Part of Policy Studies
of Education

• Levels of value inquiry
• Ethical value It refers to desirable traits and
  features we attributed to human behaviors,
  actions, and conducts.
• Moral value It refers to desirable traits and
  features attributed to human interactions and
  relationships among fellows humans.
• Political values It refers to the ethical and
  moral values taken by a given society as of
  prominent importance that they should be imposed
  onto all members of that society coercively.

20
Constituents and Levels of Strong Evaluation
Justificatory with articulacy and depth Supported with sense of responsibility and agency Embodied with notion of identity Embedded in community
Ethical Values
Moral Values
Political Values
21
Value Inquiry An Integral Part of Policy Studies
of Education

1. Accordingly, value inquiry in public policy
   studies may be defined as part of the inquiry of
   political value which focuses on the legitimacy
   of a public authority (the modern state) in
   substantiating those prominent values, which are
   to be imposed coercively onto the civil society
   which falls under its sovereignty. This line of
   inquiry falls mainly within the purview of
   political philosophy and jurisprudence.

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Policy Discourse of Quality Education In
Search of the Intrinsic Value
23
Policy Discourse of Quality Education In
Search of the Intrinsic Value

• Techno-efficient conception of quality education
• Quality education outcome Acquisition of
• Skills and competences, which can be
  standardized, quantified, calculable, predictable
  and controllable
• Skills and competences, which are employable,
  marketable and convertible in money terms
• Skills and competences, which are governable
• Quality learning and teaching processes
• Students are materials, which can be value-added
• Teachers are workers, who can be benchmarked
• Teaching and learning are processes, which can be
  audited in time-motion terms

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Policy Discourse of Quality Education In
Search of the Intrinsic Value

• Techno-efficient conception of quality education
• Quality school organizations
• School organizations are structures, which can be
  standardized and benchmarked
• School organizations are processes, which can be
  audited with standardized indicators
• School organizations are cultures, which can be
  measures with school ethos checklists
• Assumption of prefect causality in education
  enterprises in techno-scientific conception of
  quality in education

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Policy Discourse of Quality Education In
Search of the Intrinsic Value

• Empathetic-practical conception of quality in
  education
• Quality in education outcome Attainment of
• Practical efficacy in interaction with fellow
  beings
• Empathetic understanding in social interactions
• Social identification and integration in
  particular human communities

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Policy Discourse of Quality Education In
Search of the Intrinsic Value

• Empathetic-practical conception of quality in
  education
• Quality in learning and teaching processes
• Teachers as professionals working in communal
  bonds of intellectuality, practicality and trust
• Teachers and students are in professional-client
  relationships, which are bonded by empathetic
  understanding and trust
• Teaching and learning are practical interactions
  of uncertainty, which can not be lock-stepped
  into calculable and controllable processes

27
Policy Discourse of Quality Education In
Search of the Intrinsic Value

• Empathetic-practical conception of quality in
  education
• Quality in school organizations
• Schools as communities of empathetic
  understanding and caring between the elderly and
  offspring
• Schools as professional communities of
  intellectuality, practicality and trust
• Assumption of education as an uncertain practice
  of Reflective Practitioners (Schon, 1983)

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Policy Discourse of Quality Education In
Search of the Intrinsic Value

• Emancipatory conception of quality in education
• Quality in education outcome Capacities to
• To excel beyond the current state of being
• To speculate
• To better the status quo
• Quality in learning and teaching processes
• Teachers are transformative intellectuals working
  for the betterment of the status quo and the
  coming generation
• Students are potentials to be excel
• Teaching and learning are experimental,
  surprising and risk-taking processes of
  liberating speculative spirits

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Policy Discourse of Quality Education In
Search of the Intrinsic Value

• Emancipatory conception of quality in education
• Quality in school organizations
• Schools as liberating communities of human
  potentials
• Schools as communities of praxis
• Assumption of education as risk-taking praxis of
  speculative or even revolutionary spirits

30
Equality as Prima Facie Value in Education Policy
Argumentation

• Policy search for equality of education The US
  experiences
• Horace Mann, one of the founders of US public
  school system, advocated three century ago,
  Surely nothing but universal education can
  counterwork this tendency to the domination of
  capital and servility of labour. If one class
  possesses all the wealth and the education, while
  the residue of society is ignorant and poor, it
  matters not by what name the relation between
  them may be called the latter, in fact and in
  truth, will be the servile dependents and
  subjects of the former. But, if education be
  equally diffused, it will draw property after it
  by the strongest of all attractions. ...
  Education, then, beyond all other devices of
  human origin, is the great equalizer of the
  conditions of men, the balance-wheel of the
  social machinery. (Horace Mann, 1848)

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Equality as Prima Facie Value in Education Policy
Argumentation

1. Policy search for equality of education The US
   experiences

James S. Coleman (1926-1995)
Horace Mann (1796-1859)
32
Equality as Prima Facie Value in Education Policy
Argumentation

• Policy search for equality of education The US
  experiences
• James Colemans conceptualization of equality of
  educational opportunity
• Equality of access to education
• Equality of educational process
• Equality of educational result
• Equality of educational outcome

33
Equality as Prima Facie Value in Education Policy
Argumentation

1. Douglas Raes structural grammar of equality

34
Equality as Prima Facie Value in Education Policy
Argumentation

• Douglas Raes structural grammar of equality
• Formal Definition
• Grammar of equality As formal definition of
  equality applies to concrete social situations,
  it has to adopted to at least five structural
  problems and these problems must be anticipated
  wherever equality is a goal or principle of
  social policy. They are (1) complex social
  classification, (2) plural allocation, (3)
  indivisibilities, (4) human differences, and (5)
  relativity. (Rae, 1981, p. 14)

35
Equality as Prima Facie Value in Education Policy
Argumentation

• Douglas Raes structural grammar of equality
• Subject of equality Equality for whom
• Individual-regarding equality
• Simple subject
• Segmental subject ( ? )
• Bloc-regarding equality Bloc-equal subject (?
  ?)
• Classification of students
• Simple individual equality Universal, free and
  compulsory education
• Segment-subject equality Special education
• Block-regarding equality Positive-discrimination
  education for racial minorities, the
  socioeconomic disadvantaged and female

36
Equality as Prima Facie Value in Education Policy
Argumentation

• Douglas Raes structural grammar of equality
• Domain of equality - Equal what? Do X's domain
  of allocation (supply) cover Y's domain of
  account (demand)
• Straightforward equality
• Marginal equality
• Global equality
• Distribution of educational resources
• Marginal equality 9-year compulsory education
• Global equality Positive discrimination education

37
Equality as Prima Facie Value in Education Policy
Argumentation

• Objective of equality
• Direct equality (of result)
• Equality of opportunity
• Means-regarding equal opportunity
• Prospect-regarding equal opportunity
• Equality of educational opportunity rather result
• Means-regarding equality of educational
  opportunity
• Equality of educational access
• Equality of education process
• Prospect-regarding equality of educational
  opportunity
• Equality of education output
• Equality of education outcome

38
Equality as Prima Facie Value in Education Policy
Argumentation

• Value of equality
• Lot-regarding equality
• Person-regarding equality
• Utility-based equality
• End based equality
• Need-based equality
• Equality of educational value
• Lot-regarding equality of education Principle of
  respect, compulsory education common-school and
  common-curriculum policies
• Personal-regarding equality of education
• Utility-based personal-regarding equality of
  education
• End-based personal-regarding equality of
  education
• Need-based personal-regarding equality of
  education
• Principle of praise and fair educational sifting
  and selection

39
Equality as Prima Facie Value in Education Policy
Argumentation

• Relativity of equality
• Absolute equality
• Relative equality
• Relativity of equality
• Absolute educational equality
• Relative educational equality

40
Subject of Equality
Domain of Equality
Objective of Equality
Value of Equality
Relativity of Equality
Lot- Regarding equality
Simple subject equality
Straight- forward equality
Direct equality (for result)
Utility- based equality
Absolute equality
Mean-regarding equal opportunity

Segment subject equality
Marginal equality
End- based equality
Prospect-regarding equal opportunity
Bloc- regarding equality
Global equality
Need- based equality
Relative equality

• X 3 x 3 x 4 x
  2
• 216

41
Justice as Prima Facie Value in Education Policy
Argumentation

• Aristotle's formal definition of justice
  (Aristotle, 1996, Book III, P. 61-91)
• Treating equal equally or treating unequal
  unequally is just.
• Treating equal unequally or treating unequal
  equally is unjust.

42
Justice as Prima Facie Value in Education Policy
Argumentation

1. John Rawls A Theory of Justice

(1921-2002)
43
Justice as Prima Facie Value in Education Policy
Argumentation

• John Rawls A Theory of Justice
• Justice as fairness The meaning of fairness that
  Rawls reckons is as follows
• Fundamental to justice is the concept of
  fairness which relates to right dealing between
  persons who are cooperating with or competing
  against one another, as when one speak of fair
  games, fair competition, and fair bargains. The
  question of fairness arises when free persons,
  who have no authority over one another, are
  engaging in a joint activity and among themselves
  settling or acknowledging the rules which define
  it and which determine the respective shares in
  its benefits and burdens. ..

44
Justice as Prima Facie Value in Education Policy
Argumentation

• John Rawls A Theory of Justice
• The meaning of fairness
• A practice will strike the parties as fair if
  none feels that, by participating in it, they or
  any of the others are taken advantage of, or
  forced to give in to claims which they do not
  regard as legitimate. This implies that each has
  a conception of legitimate claims which he thinks
  it reasonable for others as well as himself to
  acknowledge. A practice is just or fair, then,
  when it satisfies the principles which those who
  participate in it could propose to one another
  for mutual acceptance under aforementioned
  circumstances. (Rawls, 19991958, p. 59)

45
Justice as Prima Facie Value in Education Policy
Argumentation

• John Rawls A Theory of Justice
• Two principles of justice Rawls stipulates that
  justice is the first virtue of social
  institution (P.3) and the primacy of justice
  over other social values. Hence, the basic
  structure of a just society is to be constituted
  in accordance with the two principles of
  justice.
• First Principle Each person is to have an equal
  right to the most extensive total system of equal
  basic liberties compatible with similar system of
  liberty for all.
• Second Principle Social and economic
  inequalities are to be arranged so that they are
  both
• to the greatest benefits of the least advantaged,
  and
• attached to offices and positions open to all
  under conditions of fair equality of
  opportunities. (Rawls, 1971, p. 302)

46
Justice as Prima Facie Value in Education Policy
Argumentation

1. Applications of the principles These principles
   primarily apply to the basic structure of
   society. They are to govern the assignment of
   rights and duties and to regulate the
   distribution of social and economic
   advantages.These principles presuppose that the
   social structure can be divided into two more or
   less distinct parts. (Rawls, 1871, p. 61)

47
Justice as Prima Facie Value in Education Policy
Argumentation

• Applications of the principles
• The First Principle applies to those distinct
  aspects of the social system that define and
  secure the equal liberties of citizenship. The
  basic liberties of citizens are, roughly
  speaking, political liberty (right to vote and to
  be eligible for public office) together with
  freedom of speech and assembly liberty of
  conscience and freedom of thought freedom of
  person along with right to hold (personal)
  property freedom from arbitrary arrest and
  seizure as defined by the concept of the rule of
  law. These liberties are all required to be
  equal, since citizens of just society are to
  have the same basic rights. (p.61)

48
Justice as Prima Facie Value in Education Policy
Argumentation

• Applications of the principles
• The Second Principle applies to those aspects of
  social system that specify and establish social
  and economic inequalities. More specifically, it
  appliesto the distribution of income and wealth
  and to the design of organizations that make use
  of differences in authority and responsibility,
  or chains of command. (p. 61)

49
Justice as Prima Facie Value in Education Policy
Argumentation

• Interpretation of the second principle
• Rawls qualifies that the two constituent phrases
  in the Second Principle, namely to everyones
  advantage and equally open to all need further
  interpretation.
• Rawls interprets the two phrases as follows
  (Rawls, 1971, p. 65)

50
Justice as Prima Facie Value in Education Policy
Argumentation
51
Justice as Prima Facie Value in Education Policy
Argumentation

• Priority and lexical orders between principles of
  justice
• The priority of liberty The First Principle,
  namely the principle of liberty) has lexical
  priority over the Second Principle This ordering
  means that a departure from the institutions of
  equal liberty required by the first principle
  cannot be justified by, or compensated for, by
  greater social and economic advantages. (p. 61)
• The priority of democratic equality over the
  other three systems, in other words, the priority
  of difference principle and equality as equality
  of fair opportunity over principle of efficiency
  and equality as careers open to talent.

52
Justice as Prima Facie Value in Education Policy
Argumentation

1. Ronald Dworkins theory of equality of resource
   Dworkin, a prominent figure in the field of
   jurisprudence and political philosophy, has
   criticizes that Rawls has based his theory of
   justice solely on the distributive result of
   primary goods (i.e. the welfare) among people.
   This is especially true in the Second Principle
   of Justice, which stipulates that inequality of
   primary goods should only be distributed
   unequally to the benefits of the least
   advantaged. Dworkin points out that Rawls has
   failed to address the causes contributing to the
   state of least advantaged and least well-off in
   which people found themselves.

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1931-2013
54
Justice as Prima Facie Value in Education Policy
Argumentation

• Ronald Dworkins theory of equality of resource
• Types of the least well-off Dworkin has made
  three distinctive causes of the least well-off.
• People are least well-off because of unequal
  share of natural endowments, such as talent,
  heath, physical ability, etc. Dworkin
  characterizes them as personal resources.

55
Justice as Prima Facie Value in Education Policy
Argumentation

• Ronald Dworkins theory of equality of resource
• Types of the least well-off
• People are least well-off because of unequal
  share of socioeconomic endowments, such as
  socioeconomic backgrounds, cultural-linguistic
  background, or even racial and/or ethnical
  backgrounds, which are disadvantageous in a given
  society. Dworkin called them impersonal
  resources.
• Given equal shares in resources, people may end
  up being least well-off because of costly or even
  unwise choice, such as gambling or wasteful
  life-styles or voluntary choice, such as
  religious belief.

56
Justice as Prima Facie Value in Education Policy
Argumentation

• Ronald Dworkins theory of equality of resource
• Injustice in the Second Principle Accordingly,
  Dworkin underlines that Rawls Second Principle
  may have unfairly provided compensation to people
  even though they appear to belong to the least
  well-off.
• For Type (i) least disadvantaged, a blanket and
  non-discriminating compensations with the other
  types of least well-off is itself unjust. Given
  their disadvantages in natural endowments, they
  may need more compensation in order to be able to
  develop and research to the similar level of
  well-being as those having average level of
  natural endowments

57
Justice as Prima Facie Value in Education Policy
Argumentation

• Ronald Dworkins theory of equality of resource
• Injustice in the Second Principle .
• Apart from the amount of compensation, to Type
  (i) least disadvantaged, the content of the
  compensation is also essential. In Rawls Second
  Principle compensation only comes as welfare
  (i.e. end result in the form of primary goods)
  but numbers of political philosophers have argued
  that they should also come at the commencing
  stage of their developments, as resources
  (Dworkin, 1995), as capacity (Sen, 1995) and as
  Access (Cohen, 2011).

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59
Justice as Prima Facie Value in Education Policy
Argumentation

• Ronald Dworkins theory of equality of resource
• Injustice in the Second Principle .
• For Type (ii) least advantaged, they should of
  course be compensated in the form of both as
  resource and as welfare.
• As for Type (iii) least advantaged, especially
  those of costly and/or unwise choosers, Dworkin
  argues that it is unjust to compensate them.
• Hence, as Will Kymlicka aptly put it Rawls
  himself leaves too much room for the influence of
  natural inequality, and at the same time leaves
  too little room for the influence of our choice.
  (2002, P. 70)

60
Justice as Prima Facie Value in Education Policy
Argumentation

• Dworkins theory of justice of liberal equality
  To address the internal problems of Rawls Second
  Principle, Dworkin construct his theory of
  justice in a series of articles. (1995, see also
  1981a b, 1987a b, 1989)They theory can
  presented diagrammatically as follow.
• And Dworkin claims that his model of liberal
  equality represents equality, liberty and
  community as fused together in an overall
  political ideal. (Dworkin, 1995, P. 226)

61
ORIGIN
DESTINATION
PROCESS In pursuit of ones own critical
well-being
Liberty
Equality
Insurance mechanism in form of taxation
transfer payment to compensate inequality of
personal resources
Auction mechanism as devices to determine the
amount of equal share in impersonal resources
amount of compensations if need be
It refers to the idea of equality of endowment s
resources at the commencing stage of the
pursuit. These resources are of two distinctive
types
It refers to the idea that people are endowed
with the liberty and autonomy to choose their own
versions of critical well-being. As a result they
bear full responsibility of their choice
decisions.
Personal resources/ natural endowments
Impersonal resources/ socioeconomic endowments
No compensation for costly /or unwise choice
Just Distribution 3
Just Distribution 2
Just Distribution 1
Various forms of just distributions have to be
worked out and sediment overtime within a given
community of reasonable citizens, i.e.
institutionalization
Community
62
ORIGIN
DESTINATION
PROCESS In pursuit of ones own critical
well-being
Liberty
Equality
Insurance mechanism in form of taxation
transfer payment to compensate inequality of
personal resources
Auction mechanism as devices to determine the
amount of equal share in impersonal resources
amount of compensations if need be
It refers to the idea of equality of endowment s
resources at the commencing stage of the
pursuit. These resources are of two distinctive
types
It refers to the idea that people are endowed
with the liberty and autonomy to choose their own
versions of critical well-being. As a result they
bear full responsibility of their choice
decisions.
Liberal equality represents equality, liberty
and community as fused together in an overall
political ideal. (Rowkin, 1995, P. 226)
Personal resources/ natural endowments
Impersonal resources/ socioeconomic endowments
No compensation for costly /or unwise choice
Just Distribution 3
Just Distribution 2
Just Distribution 1
Various forms of just distributions have to be
worked out and sediment overtime within a given
community of reasonable citizens, i.e.
institutionalization
Community
63
Justice as Prima Facie Value in Education Policy
Argumentation

• Michael Walzers concept of complex equality
• Walzer, a prominent political philosopher in the
  US, published a book entitle Spheres of Justice
  in 1983, to criticize Rawls ambition to
  construct a, if not the, theory of justice and at
  the same time outline his theory of complex
  equality and spheres of justice.

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65
Justice as Prima Facie Value in Education Policy
Argumentation

• Walzers concept of complex equality
• Pluralistic conception of distributive justice
• Walzer begins with the argument that to search
  for unity is to misunderstand the subject matter
  of distributive justice. (Walzer 1983, P. 4)

66
Justice as Prima Facie Value in Education Policy
Argumentation

• Walzers concept of complex equality
• Pluralistic conception of distributive justice
• Instead he underlines, Different political
  arrangements enforce, and different ideologies
  justifiy, different distributions of membership,
  power, honor, ritual eminence, divine grace,
  kinship and love, knowledge, wealth, physical
  security, work and leisure, rewards and
  punishments, and a host of goods more narrowly
  and materially conceived?food, shelter, clothing,
  transportation, medical care, commodities of
  every sort, and the odd things (printings, rare
  books, postage stamps) that human beings collect.
  And this multiplicity of goods is matched by a
  multiplicity of distributive procedures, agents,
  and criteria. (Walzer, 1983, P. 3)

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Justice as Prima Facie Value in Education Policy
Argumentation

• Walzers concept of complex equality
• Membership of distributive community According
  to Walzers formulation distribution could only
  take place within definitive community and
  distribution could also be undertaken among
  eligible and entitled members.
• In his own words, human society is a
  distributive community. It is important that we
  come together to share, divide, and exchange. We
  also come together to make the things that are
  shared, divided, and exchanged but that very
  making?work itself?is distributed among us in a
  division of labor. (Walzer, 1983, P. 3)

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Justice as Prima Facie Value in Education Policy
Argumentation

• Walzers concept of complex equality
• Membership of distributive community
• Accordingly, the first and most important
  question in distributive justice is How is the
  distributive community is constituted? Who are
  members who are entitled to share, divide, and
  exchange? Who are the non-members who are
  excluded from the distributive game? In short,
  how membership is defined?

69
Justice as Prima Facie Value in Education Policy
Argumentation

• Walzers concept of complex equality
• Membership of distributive community
• Walzer has listed a matrix of membership commonly
  found in human society for our reference.
• enemy,
• stranger,
• refugee,
• guest worker,
• resident in a territory,
• citizen of a sovereign state,
• national of a nation,
• member of ethnic group,
• neighbor,
• clansman,
• family member, etc.

We Group/ They Group
70
Justice as Prima Facie Value in Education Policy
Argumentation

• Walzers concept of complex equality
• Membership of distributive community
• Walzer underlines that the distribution of
  membership is not pervasively subject to the
  constraints of justice. (Walzer, 1983, P. 61) In
  fact, throughout human history, we have witnessed
  numerous arbitrary and accidental assignments of
  membership among socioeconomic, political and
  cultural communities.

71
Justice as Prima Facie Value in Education Policy
Argumentation

• Walzers sphere of education and its principles
  of distributive justice
• Education as a special and enclosed sphere
  Education is what John Dewey called a special
  environment. The students are granted a partial
  moratorium from the demand of society and
  economy. The teachers, too, are protected from
  the immediate forms of external pressure. They
  teacher the truths they understand, and the same
  truths, to all the students in front of them, and
  respond to questions as best they can, without
  regard to the students social origins. (Walzer,
  1983, P. 199)

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Justice as Prima Facie Value in Education Policy
Argumentation

• Walzers sphere of education and its principles
  of distributive justice
• According, the most interesting and hardest
  distributive questions arising from the sphere
  of education are Which children is it who are
  admitted into the enclosed communities? Who goes
  to school? And to what sort of school? (What is
  the strength of the enclosure?) To study What?
  For how long? With what other students? (Walzer,
  1983, P. 199)

73
Justice as Prima Facie Value in Education Policy
Argumentation

• Walzers sphere of education
• As a results, there have been various kinds of
  schooling developed according to diverse
  principles of distributive justice
• Common schools for all As Aristotle advocated
  centuries ago the system of education in a state
  must be one and the same for all, and the
  provision of this system must be a matter of
  public action. (Aristotle, Politics quoted in
  Walzer, 1983, P. 202 my emphasis) And again as
  R.H. Tawney, a prominent historian and socialist
  in the twentieth-century England, underlined, To
  serve educational needs, without regard to the
  vulgar irrelevance of class and income is part of
  the teachers honor (Tawney, 1964, quoted in
  Walzer, 1983, P. 202)

74
Justice as Prima Facie Value in Education Policy
Argumentation

• Walzers sphere of education
• . various kinds of schooling .
• Compulsory schools for future citizens of the
  state If common school for all is based on the
  distributive justice by need of individuals,
  then compulsory schooling can be conceived as
  distribution for the need of the society or more
  specifically the sovereign state. The principle
  of simple equality could then be construed as in
  conflict with individual liberty.

75
Justice as Prima Facie Value in Education Policy
Argumentation

• Walzers sphere of education
• been various kinds of schooling
• Schools for the minorities Minorities by
  ethnicity, language, religion, etc. may dispute
  compulsory schooling from the value stance of
  liberty to preserve its cultural integrity and
  heritage. And ask for separate school.
• Private schools for the wealthy Separate school
  argument can also be waged by other social
  groups, such as the wealthy, who can based their
  argument on the distributive justice by free
  exchange.

76
Justice as Prima Facie Value in Education Policy
Argumentation

• Walzers sphere of education
• various kinds of schooling
• Talent track Separate school policy can also be
  proposed not from the principle of free
  exchange but be based on the principle of
  justice by desert. For example children who are
  exceptionally talent may desert to be educated
  separately. By the same token, children who are
  handicapped (especially intelligently) should
  also be rendered separate education.

77
Justice as Prima Facie Value in Education Policy
Argumentation

• Walzers sphere of education
• various kinds of schooling
• Neighborhood schools Given the fact that
  education or more specifically schooling must be
  delivered in group in a definite locality, with
  whom and where are children educated have been
  one of the central contention in distributive
  justice of education. Since most students
  residences are socioeconomically and ethnically
  located, social and ethnical segregations in
  education have been one of the major
  controversies in education policy. This is most
  evidenced in the controversies swirled form the
  first two Coleman Reports explicated in Topic 2.

78

University

Senior Secondary

Junior Secondary
Primary
Preschool
79
From Distributive Justice to Relational Justice
Reframing Education Policy of Justice

1. In 1990, Iris Young published her work entitled
   Justice and the Politics of Difference, in which
   she criticizes that the theoretical discourse
   about justice has been dominated by the
   distributive paradigm. Instead she put forth her
   theory of relational justice.

80
(1949-2006)
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From Distributive Justice to Relational Justice
Reframing Education Policy of Justice

1. Contemporary theories of justice are dominated
   by a distributive paradigm, which tends to focus
   on the possession of material goods and social
   positions. This distributive focus, however,
   obscures other issues of institutional
   organization at the same time that it often
   particular institutional and practices as given.
   (Young, 1990, P. 8)

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From Distributive Justice to Relational Justice
Reframing Education Policy of Justice

1. Justice should refer not only to distribution,
   but also to the institutional conditions
   necessary for the development and exercise of
   individual capacities and collective
   communication and cooperation. Under the
   conception of justice, injustice refers primarily
   to two forms of disabling constraints, oppression
   and domination. While these constraints include
   distributive patterns, they also involve matters
   which cannot easily be assimilated to the logic
   of distribution decision-making procedures,
   division of labor, and culture. (Young 1990, P.
   39)..

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From Distributive Justice to Relational Justice
Reframing Education Policy of Justice

• .. Hence, the concept of justice should also
  apply to the social relational domain, which
  strives for social relations guaranteeing
• Self-development, i.e. free from oppression
• Self determination, i.e. free from domination

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From Distributive Justice to Relational Justice
Reframing Education Policy of Justice

• Oppression as injustice
• Oppression consists in systematic institutional
  processes which prevent some people from learning
  and using satisfying and expansive skills in
  socially recognized settings, or
  institutionalized social processes which inhibit
  peoples ability to play and communicate with
  others or to express their feelings and
  perspectives on social life in contexts where
  others can listen. (Young, 1990, P. 38)
  Accordingly, young has specified five faces of
  oppression (Pp. 39-65)

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From Distributive Justice to Relational Justice
Reframing Education Policy of Justice

• Oppression as injustice
• Accordingly, Young has specified five faces of
  oppression (Pp. 39-65)
• Exploitation The injustice of exploitation
  consists in social processes that bring about a
  transfer of energies from one group to another to
  produce unequal distributions, and in the way in
  which social institutions enable a few to
  accumulate while they constraint many more.
  (Young, 1990, p.53) These exploitation social
  institution may appears in class, gender and/or
  racial relation.

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From Distributive Justice to Relational Justice
Reframing Education Policy of Justice

• Oppression as injustice
• Marginalization Marginalization is perhaps the
  most dangerous form of oppression. A whole
  category of people is expelled from useful
  participation in social life and thus potentially
  subjected to severe material deprivation and even
  extermination. (p. 53)
• Even if marginals were provided a
  comfortable material life within institutions
  that respected their freedom and dignity,
  injustices of marginality would remain in the
  form of uselessness, boredom, and lack of
  self-respect. (p.55)

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From Distributive Justice to Relational Justice
Reframing Education Policy of Justice

• Oppression as injustice
• Powerless It is a status in which the powerless
  lack the authority, status, and sense of self.
  (p.57) As a result, they will experience
  inhibition in the development of ones
  capacities, lack of decisionmaking power in ones
  working life, and exposure to disrespectful
  treatment because of the status one occupies.
  (p.58)

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From Distributive Justice to Relational Justice
Reframing Education Policy of Justice

• Oppression as injustice
• Cultural imperialism Cultural imperialism
  involves the universalization of a groups
  experience and culture, and its establishment as
  the norm. Some groups have exclusive or primary
  access to the means of interpretation and
  communication in a society. This, then, is the
  injustice of cultural imperialism that the
  oppressed groups own experience and
  interpretation of social life finds little
  expression that touches the domanint culture,
  while that same culture imposes on the oppressed
  group its experience and interpretation of social
  life. (p.59-60)

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From Distributive Justice to Relational Justice
Reframing Education Policy of Justice

• Oppression as injustice
• Violence Members of some groups live with the
  knowledge that they must fear random, unprovoked
  attacks on their persons or property, which have
  no motive but to damage, humiliate, or destroy
  the person. (p.61)

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From Distributive Justice to Relational Justice
Reframing Education Policy of Justice

• Domination as injustice (Self-determination)
• Domination consists in institutional condition
  which inhibit or prevent people from
  participating in determining their actions or the
  conditions of their actions. Persons live within
  structures of domination if other persons or
  groups can determine without reciprocation the
  conditions of their action, either directly or by
  virtue of the structural consequences of their
  action. Thorough social and political democracy
  is the opposite of domination. (Young, 1990, P.
  38)

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From Distributive Justice to Relational Justice
Reframing Education Policy of Justice

• Domination as injustice
• Justicerequiresparticipation in public
  discussion and process of democratic
  decisionamking. All persons should have the right
  and opportunity to participate in the
  deliberation and decisionmaking of the
  institutions to which their actions contribute or
  which directly affect their actions. Democracy
  is both an element and a condition of social
  justice. Democracy is also a condition for a
  publics arriving at decisions whose substance
  and implications best promote substantively just
  outcomes. The argument for this claim relies on
  Habermass conception of communicative ethnics.
  (Pp. 91-92)

91
92
(1929- )
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From Distributive Justice to Relational Justice
Reframing Education Policy of Justice

• Domination as injustice
• Habermas communicative rationality and ethics
• Communicative rationality
• An assertion can be called rational if the
  speakers satisfies the conditions necessary to
  achieve the illocutionary goal of reaching an
  understanding about something in the world with
  at least one other participant in
  communication.(Habermas, 1984, P.11)
• Definition of communicative rationality Concept
  of communicative rationality carries with it
  connotation based ultimately on the central
  experience of the unconstrained, unifying,
  consensus-bringing force of argumentative speech,
  in which different participants overcome their
  merely subjective view and, owing to the
  mutuality of rationally motivated conviction,
  assure themselves of both the unity of the
  objective world and the intersubjectivity of
  their lifeworld.(Habermas, 1984, P.10)

93
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From Distributive Justice to Relational Justice
Reframing Education Policy of Justice

• Domination as injustice
• Habermas communicative rationality and ethics
• Communicative ethics (also termed argumentative
  ethics or discourse ethics) It refers to the
  principles that communicatively rational
  participants in an argument are willing to
  observe in conducting their argumentative claims
  with the aim of arriving at a mutually acceptable
  consensus on the subject matter under discussion
  or even dispute. Habermas suggests that these
  communicative ethics are the normative bases for
  the constitution of the ideal communicative
  situation in which unrestrained communications
  can be conducted and mutually acceptable
  consensuses are to be researched.

94
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From Distributive Justice to Relational Justice
Reframing Education Policy of Justice

• Domination as injustice
• Habermas communicative rationality and ethics
• These principles include (Habermas, 1979,
  P.68 Habermas, 1988, P.23 Forester, 1989)
• Truth and efficacy This set of principles
  applies primarily to statements or argumentative
  claims relate to the validity of cognitive
  propositions or instrumental plans of actions. It
  requires speakers engaging in a discourse to put
  forth cognitive propositions concerning the
  natural world that are true and the instrumental
  (mean-end) plans of actions that are practical
  efficacious
• Rightness This principle applies mainly to
  argumentative claims relate to the validity of
  moral and practical prescriptions. It requires
  speakers in discourse to yield statements that
  are in compliance with the general norms of the
  community in which the discourse takes place or
  refers to.

95
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From Distributive Justice to Relational Justice
Reframing Education Policy of Justice

• Domination as injustice
• Habermas communicative rationality and ethics
• These principles include (Habermas, 1979,
  P.68 Habermas, 1988, P.23 Forester, 1989)
• Relevancy and/or legitimacy This set of
  principles applies specifically to argumentative
  claims made in evaluative and more specifically
  public evaluative context, such as evaluation on
  public policy discourse. It requires its
  respective speakers to make evaluative statements
  based on standards of value, which are relevant
  and/or legitimate to the issues under evaluation.
• Truthfulness and sincerity This set of
  principles applies to the internal and expressive
  p