Teaching and Consulting

1
Teaching and Consulting

• Chapter 7

2
Introduction

• Facilitating change
• Counseling
• Consulting
• Support services
• Adult education
• Expert advice and contract services
• Coaching

3
Indicators of Effective Teaching

• Development of a warm, positive climate
• Appropriate matching of content to student
  abilities
• High of time devoted to lesson objectives
• High rates of on-task behaviors
• Shared responsibility for learning and
  demonstrated self-determinism by students

4
Instructional Model to Guide Teaching

• Three Basic Parts
• Input - information about all of the variables
  that affect learning and teaching
• Process - actual interpretations that lead to
  behavior change
• Outcomes - desired results goals

5
Theories Underlying the Model

• Systems Theory - (1940s) starts with input, moves
  to process, then focuses on outcomes that provide
  feedback for revision, then cycle starts again
• Dynamical Systems Theory - (1990s) builds on
  systems theory, adding complexity,
  multidimensionality, and interactiveness of
  chaotic systems in life
• Ecological Theory - (1990s) analyzing the
  interactions and interdependence between humans
  and all aspects of their physical and social
  environment

6
Interactiveness of Model Components

• PAP-TE-CA model is ecological
• Utilizes input, process and outcome instructional
  components
• Emphasizes the dynamic, multidirectional, chaotic
  complexity of what occurs in the classroom

7
Inputs That Influence Teaching

• Presage - human predictors variables
• Context - nonhuman predictor variables
• Input about people
• Input about environment
• Input about time

8
Input About People

• Numerous variables concerning people
• Many variables are situational or contextual
• Variables affecting physical education
• Student variables of interest, motivation, and
  perceived usefulness of physical activities
  interact with process to affect goal achievement
• Strongly influenced by family, leisure practices,
  facilities, and values

9
Input About Environment

• Variables such as class size, facilities,
  equipment, and school, home, and community
  resources
• Very important for individuals with sensory or
  mobility impairments
• Examine variables in relationship to people

10
Input About Time

• Considerations for structuring goal-specific
  instruction
• Developing Lesson Plans
• Linking Lessons with Objectives
• Using Out-of-School Time
• Socializing Children Into Sport

11
Input About Time

• Developing Lesson Plans - 3 parts
• Introductory activity
• Lesson body
• Summary
• Linking Lessons with Objectives
• Objectives require specific attention
• Objectives embedded in other activities

12
Input About Time

• Using Out-of-School Time
• Inclusion of physical activity in out-of-school
  time (i.e., homework, family trips)
• Socializing Children Into Sport
• Transition activities include participation in
  community sports and fitness activities
• Promoting wise use of leisure time

13
Input About Opportunity

• Philosophical and cultural factors
• Economic factors
• Family, school, and community factors
• Positives
• Negatives
• Needed changes and potential for change

14
Teaching Process and Outcomes

• Indicators as principles
• Evaluate extent to which principles are followed
• Process results in optimal goal achievement
• Principles interact with various inputs

15
Maintain a Warm, Positive Learning Climate

• Personalization
• Nurturing
• Positive interactions
• High but realistic expectations
• Cooperative relationships and activities

• Mutual respect
• Choices
• Dignity
• Fairness
• Inclusivenss
• Every child a winner
• Focus on abilities not disabilities

16
Individualize Instruction by Making Adaptations

• Teacher flexibility in assessing and implementing
  adaptations
• Adaptation of equipment, facilities, body
  position, time and space requirements
• Creative teachers, working with students to
  achieve personal bests

17
Promote a Data-Based Gymnasium

• Concept associated with behavior management
  curriculum
• Minute-by-minute individualization within a
  specific lesson
• Requires continuous assessment and record keeping
  in conjunction with instruction

18
Part Method Versus Whole Method

• Whole method - total task presentation through
  demonstration and/or verbal instructions
• Pure part method - each part practiced separately
  many times before all are combined or chained
• Progressive part method - parts of a skill are
  chained together in a particular order

19
Traditional Task Analysis by Parts and Steps

• Task analysis - breaking down a task into parts
  and ordering them from easy to hard
• Teach each part until criteria is met
• Forward or backward chaining
• Steps gradually increase task difficulty after a
  skill is learned to a functional level

20
Levels of Assistance

• Use various levels of assistance when performing
  a task or sequence of tasks
• Physical assistance
• Verbal assistance
• Demonstration
• Cues
• Independently

21
Behavior Management

• Record keeping on kinds of instructions and
  reinforcements that are best for each student
• Dates indicate mastery
• Requires low teacher-student ratio
• Volunteers must be trained in using the
  data-based system

22
Maximize Time-on-Task With Success

• Number of minutes that a student is engaged
  motorically in activities related to his or her
  individual objectives
• Academic Learning Time-Physical Education
  (ALT-PE)
• Feeling good about the learning process
• Mastery or observable improvement
• Personal best is occurring

23
Student Behaviors

• Management responses
• Knowledge assimilation
• Time-on-task
• Waiting
• Time-off-task

24
Concerns About Student Behaviors

• Time-on-task is linked to teaching behaviors
• Increasing time-on-task
• Individualized instruction
• Peer tutors
• Specific feedback and reinforcers
• Consideration of massed versus distributed
  practice

25
Devote a High Percentage of Time to Class
Objectives

• Every class activity should pertain to a
  particular objective
• Free time should be structured to relate to
  instructional objectives
• Examination of teacher behaviors

26
Teacher Behaviors

• Managing
• Instructing
• Monitoring
• Feedback
• Controlling

27
Concerns About Teacher Behaviors

• Spend too much time on initial instructions
• Spend too much time getting students in position
• Observation without specific feedback
• Constant movement, use of names, and giving
  specific praise and correctional feedback

28
Use Ecologically Valid Activities and Settings

• Content that enables the student to function
  better in her or his ecosystem
• Activities are practical, useful, meaningful, age
  appropriate, developmentally appropriate, and
  generalizable to real-life situations

29
Ecological Task Analysis(An Adpatation Process)

• Selection of a real-life function
• Ability to perform the tasks of daily living,
  work, or play
• Focuses on the relationships between the learner
  and the ecosystem
• Analyzes variables into factors and levels that
  relate to real-life conditions
• Combination of relationships that students must
  handle to be successful in real-life

30
Generalization or Transfer

• Transfer of learning from one piece of equipment
  to another and from one setting to another
• Most students generalize without specific
  training
• Students with MR need generalization built into
  the task sequences

31
Acquisition, Retention, and Maintenance

• Phases of mastery
• Assess objectively by recording number of correct
  trials completed
• Acquisition - objective is met
• Retention/maintenance - demonstrated ability
  several days or months later

32
Activity Analysis

• Breaking down an activity into the behavioral
  components needed for success
• Utilize for various activities across life
• Consider cognitive, psychomotor, and affective
  domains
• With severe MR each concept is separated for
  teaching and practicing and then chained

33
Emphasize Variability of Practice and Contextual
Interference

• Try another way
• Practice skills in various ways
• Teach skills in various ways to determine best
  way for each student
• Variability of practice principle
• Contextual interference - involving persons in an
  unrelated activity between skill practice time
  and retention testing time

34
Blocked Versus Random Trials

• Blocked condition - students perform all trials
  of one type of throw before practicing the next
  type of throw
• Random condition - students practice each type of
  throw in a random order
• Accuracy is developed more quickly with random
  practice

35
Contextual Interference, Retention, and Transfer

• Contextual interference - provide activity or
  unrelated game after completing skill practice
• Retention test - use random or blocked order to
  determine if skill is retained
• Transfer test - use the skill in performing a
  novel task

36
Ecological Task Analysis, Movement Education, and
Creativity Theory

• Variability of practice is emphasized
• Exploration and encouragement to make choices
• Fluency - ability to generate a large number of
  relevant responses
• Flexibility - ability to shift categories and
  think of different kinds

37
Individualization and Variability

• Creative teaching necessary
• Adaptation of pedagogy
• Adaptation of content
• Adaptation of environment
• Inclusion tends to intensify problems of
  classroom management
• Learning facilitator

38
Try a Wide Variety of Strategies and Techniques

• Learning stations
• Task cards
• Videotapes
• Computer technology
• Peer teachers
• Teachers who are athletes with disabilities

39
Learning Stations

• Practice provided during games and activities
• Activities for new learning
• Assignment or choice of stations
• Teaching assistance at each station
• Students rotate through all stations
• Time for rotation can vary

40
Task Cards, Videotapes, and Computer Technology

• Predeveloped learning materials
• Individualized task cards, learning packages,
  learning modules
• Computers - data entry, IEPs, progress
• PDAs
• Videotapes - feedback and assessment data

41
Peer Teachers

• Unidirectional or traditional approach
• Teacher selects and trains students without
  disabilities to help peers with disabilities
• Meet criteria and complete training
• Reciprocal or newer equal-status approach
• Students take turns in the tutor and tutee roles
• Criteria sheets guide peer interactions

42
Teachers Who Are Athletes With Disabilities

• Self-determination - beneficial to see others
  with similar disabilities leading productive
  lives
• Videotapes, books, pictures, or posters of
  persons with disabilities
• Athletes can teach motor skills, fitness, and
  other content to students with and without
  disabilities

43
Adapt Teaching Styles to Individual Needs

• Competency achieved in a variety of teaching
  styles
• Teaching styles matches the needs of the group
• Progression toward students taking on more
  responsibility for their own learning
• Command style used for students with severe
  disabilities

44
Adapt Teaching Styles to Individual Needs

• Use to simplify decision making
• Attention to learning environment and to starting
  and stopping protocols
• Consistency in teaching styles used across
  subject areas for students with severe
  disabilities
• Command style most restrictive and motor
  creativity is least restrictive

45
Apply Behavior Management Strategies

• Precisely planned, systematic application of cues
  and consequences to guide students through tasks
  or activities that are ordered from easy to
  difficult
• Applied behavior analysis (ABA)
• Behaviorism develops and applies learning
  theories to weaken, strengthen, or maintain a
  specific behavior

46
General ABA Procedures

• Specify the desired behavior
• Establish baseline performance
• Apply the intervention
• Select and apply appropriate consequences
• Determine effectiveness of intervention

47
Cues and Consequences

• Actions used by a teacher to change student
  behavior
• Cues - command or instruction telling a student
  what to do
• Brief
• Same cue each time
• Do not repeat the cue until there is a response

48
Cues and Consequences

• Consequence - immediate feedback to a behavior
  that increases or decreases its occurrence
• Reinforcement - causing a behavior to increase
• Punishment - causing a behavior to decrease
• Time-out - ignoring inappropriate behavior,
  removal from a reinforcing environment, or
  withholding reinforcers

49
Cues and Consequences

• Consequences
• Give immediate feedback
• Combine nonverbal reinforcement with words
• Reinforce within 10 seconds
• Ignore inappropriate behavior that affects only
  the student
• Punish inappropriate behavior that hurts others

50
Cues and Consequences

• Contingency management
• Use of consequences to teach or manage behavior
• Contingency - relationship between a behavior and
  the events following the behavior - giving a
  token for correct response
• Response cost - tokens are taken away when
  student fails to show appropriate behaviors

51
Time Delay Interventions

• Systematically planning the number of seconds to
  wait before giving a prompt
• Progressive - wait 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 seconds,
  respectively, between the cue and the expected
  behavior
• Constant - often follows a 10-second wait
  principle between asking a question and expecting
  an answer

52
Specific Behavior Management Techniques

• Shaping
• Chaining
• Backward chaining
• Prompting
• Fading
• Modeling
• Positive reinforcement

• Negative reinforcement
• Punishment
• Extinction
• Premack technique
• Contract teaching
• Time-out
• Good behavior game

53
Weave Counseling Into Teaching

• Communication about personal problem that is
  helpful rather than neutral or hurtful
• Healthy counseling relationship
• Active listening
• Understanding the others point of view
• Acceptance
• Willingness to become committed and involved
• Genuineness

54
Weave Counseling Into Teaching

• Active listening roles
• Encourager
• Interpreter
• Reflector
• Leisure counseling - helping persons with
  disabilities generalize skills learned at school
  to the community setting

55
Summary of Sherrills Model

• Guidelines for evaluation
• Examination of
• Inputs
• Processes
• Outcomes

56
Consulting

• Multiple functions
• Support services and team teaching
• Adult education, including in-service education
• Expert advice and specific administrative
  responsibilities
• Identifying and coordinating resources

57
Creating the Consultant Position

• The 5L Model
• Look at Me
• Leverage
• Literature
• Legislation
• Litigation
• Cowden Administrator In-Service Model
• Collaborative University/Public School Model

58
Performing Consultant Work

• Needs assessment
• Discrepancy evaluation model - conditions that
  exist and should exist
• Data collected from various sources
• Use data to provide direction for change and
  development of an assistance program
• Intensive assistance program
• Limited assistance program