Title: Splash Screen
1Splash Screen
2Contents
CHAPTER FOCUS SECTION 1 Group Behavior SECTION
2 Conformity and Obedience SECTION
3 Conflict and Cooperation CHAPTER
SUMMARY CHAPTER ASSESSMENT
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3Chapter Focus 1
Chapter Objectives
Section 1 Group Behavior
- Explain that a group is a collection of people
who interact, share common goals, and influence
how members think and act. Explore how groups are
unified by the attitudes and standards members
share and their commitment to them. ?
Section 2 Conformity and Obedience
- Describe how you may engage in behavior because
of direct or indirect group pressure or in
response to orders given by authorities.
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4Chapter Focus 2
Chapter Objectives (cont.)
Section 3 Conflict and Cooperation
- Explore conflicts between groups that result
because groups influence how individuals perceive
and respond to situations.
5End of Chapter Focus
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6Section 1-1
Readers Guide
Main Idea
- A groupa collection of people who interact,
share common goals, and influence how members
think and actis unified by the attitudes and
standards members share and by their commitment
to them. ?
Objectives
- Define and explain different types of groups. ?
- Describe the interactive patterns within groups.
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545 of your textbook.
7Section 1-2
Readers Guide (cont.)
Vocabulary
- task functions ?
- social functions ?
- norms ?
- ideology ?
- social facilitation ?
- social inhibition ?
- group polarization ?
- groupthink ?
- sociogram
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545 of your textbook.
8Section 1-3
What Are Groups?
- A group is a collection of people who interact,
share common goals, and influence how members
think and act. ?
- In general, the features that distinguish a group
from an aggregate (a nongroup) are
interdependence, shared goals, and communication.
group a collection of people who have shared
goals, a degree of interdependence, and some
amount of communication
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9Section 1-4
What Are Groups? (cont.)
- People who congregate but do not interact are not
considered a group but rather an aggregate. ?
- Interaction is the key factor in forming a group.
? - Several people who interact form a group.
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10Section 1-5
Interdependence
- To be classified as a group, a collection of
people must demonstrate interdependence. ?
- Interdependence occurs when any action by one
member will affect or influence the other
members. ? - In small groups, members usually have a direct
influence on one another one member communicates
directly with another. ? - In larger groups, the influence may be indirect.
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11Section 1-6
Interdependence (cont.)
- Communication is crucial to the functions of a
group. ?
- In some cases, the communication is directed
outward as a declaration of group membership. ? - In other instances, the communication is
internal, intended primarily for group members to
announce group activities. ?
- Direct communication aids members feelings of
belonging.
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12Section 1-7
Shared Goals
- Group members become interdependent because they
share common goals. ?
- Groups are usually created to perform tasks or to
organize activities that no individual could
handle alone.
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13Section 1-8
Shared Goals (cont.)
- The purposes groups serve are of two general
kinds ?
- In most groups, task and social functions are
combined naturally and cannot be separated
easily, although one dominates in any given group.
task functions activities directed toward getting
a job done
social functions responses directed toward
satisfying the emotional needs of members
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14Section 1-9
How Groups Are Held Together
- The factors that work to hold groups
togetherthat increase the groups
cohesivenessinclude ?
- the attitudes and standards they share ?
- their commitment to them
15Section 1-10
Norms
- Unwritten rules that govern the behavior and
attitudes of group members are called norms. ?
- They include rulesshared beliefs about the
correct way to behave and what to believe.
norms shared standards of behavior accepted by
and expected from group members
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16Section 1-11
Norms (cont.)
- These rules may be more like tendencies or
habits. ?
- Group members are expected to act in accordance
with group norms and are punished in some way if
they do not. ? - If the norm is very important to the group, a
member who violates it may endure a more severe
social reaction or may be excluded from the group.
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17Section 1-12
Ideology
- For a group to be cohesive, members must share
the same values. ?
- In some cases, people are drawn together because
they discover they have common ideas, attitudes,
and goalsthat is, a common ideology.
ideology the set of principles, attitudes, and
defined objectives for which a group stands
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18Section 1-13
Ideology (cont.)
- Some people are attracted to a group because its
ideology provides them with a new set of goals
and means for achieving them. ?
- Leaders, heroes and heroines, rallies, books and
pamphlets, slogans, and symbols all help
popularize an ideology, win converts, and create
feelings of solidarity among group members.
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19Section 1-14
Commitment
- One factor that increases individual commitment
is the requirement of personal sacrifice. ?
- If a person is willing to pay money, endure
hardship, or undergo humiliation to join a group,
he or she is likely to continue with it. ? - Cohesiveness will be high if members are
committed to their group. ? - Another factor that strengthens group commitment
is participation.
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20Section 1-15
Commitment (cont.)
- The processes that hold a group together must
work both ways. ?
- The individual must be responsive to the norms of
the group, subscribe to its ideology, and be
prepared to make sacrifices to be part of it. ? - The group must also respond to the needs of its
members. ? - It cannot achieve cohesiveness if its norms are
unenforceable, if its ideology is inconsistent
with the beliefs of its members, or if the
rewards it offers do not outweigh the sacrifices
it requires.
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21Section 1-16
Types of Groups
- Groups can be differentiated by in-groups and
out-groups and primary and secondary groups. ?
- When a groups members identify with their group,
they are referred to as the in-group. ? - The out-group includes everyone who is not a
member of the in-group. ?
- A primary group is a group of people who interact
daily face-to-face. ? - A secondary group is a larger group of people
with whom you might have more impersonal
relationships.
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22Section 1-17
Social Facilitation Versus Social Inhibition
- Social facilitation refers to the tendency to
perform better in the presence of a group. ?
- At times, however, you may perform poorly in
front of crowds. ? - This is an example of social inhibition.
social facilitation an increase in performance in
front of a crowd
social inhibition a decrease in performance in
front of a crowd
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23Section 1-18
Social Facilitation Versus Social Inhibition
(cont.)
- Social facilitation and social inhibition may
occur because the presence of a crowd increases
ones drive or arousal. ?
- Psychologist Robert Zajonc (1965) noticed that
social facilitation seemed to occur when
participants performed simple or well-learned
tasks. ? - Social inhibition occurred when participants
performed more complex tasks or tasks that
involved unfamiliar factors to the participants.
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24Section 1-19
Social Facilitation Versus Social Inhibition
(cont.)
- The effect of a crowd on your behavior may also
be a reflection of your concern about being
evaluated.
25Section 1-20
Interactions Within Groups
- Providing an individual with values and a sense
of identity is only one aspect of the groups
meaning to him or her. ?
- The particular role he or she plays in the
groups activities is also important. ? - The study of the roles various members play in
the group and how these roles are interrelated is
the study of group structure.
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26Section 1-21
Interactions Within Groups (cont.)
- There are many aspects to group structure ?
- the personal relationships between individual
members, such as liking relationships and
trusting relationships ? - the rank of each member on a particular
dimension, such as power, popularity, status, or
amount of resources ? - the roles various members play
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27Section 1-22
Interactions Within Groups (cont.)
- A role is behavior expected of an individual
because of his or her membership in a particular
group. ?
- Each of us has multiple roles that shift as we
merge with different groups. ? - Occasionally, we may find ourselves in role
conflict, such as if you switch schools and your
old school plays your new school in football.
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28Section 1-23
Decision Making
- Most groups must make decisions. ?
- Group polarization and groupthink are two
processes of group decision making.
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29Section 1-24
Decision Making (cont.)Group Polarization
- According to group polarization, the majoritys
point of view is reinforced through group
discussion. ?
- If opinions of a group are equally split on an
issue before a discussion, though, the group
discussion usually results in compromise.
group polarization theory that group discussion
reinforces the majoritys point of view and
shifts group members opinions to a more extreme
position
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30Figure 1-1
Group Polarization
31Section 1-25
Decision Making (cont.)Groupthink
- When groups emphasize sticking together and fail
to adequately appraise alternative courses of
action, they are guilty of groupthink. ?
- Group members may refrain from criticizing one
another, and they may not discuss opposing
viewpoints or critically evaluate the situation.
groupthink poor group decision making that occurs
as a result of a group emphasizing unity over
critical thinking
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32Section 1-26
Decision Making (cont.)How to Improve Group
Decision Making
- Leaders should avoid strongly advocating their
own views and, instead, encourage group
discussion. ?
- During discussion, group members should hear all
viewpoints and challenge one anothers views. ? - Also, group members should focus on the taskthe
issue to be discussed or the problem to be
resolved.
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33Section 1-27
Decision Making (cont.)How to Improve Group
Decision Making
- Group members should not focus on group unity
when making decisions. ?
- They should focus on keeping the lines of
communication open and gathering enough
information to make an unbiased decision.
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34Section 1-28
Communication Patterns
- When studying groups, social psychologists use a
technique called the sociogram to analyze group
structure. ?
- Sociograms can help psychologists predict how
that individual is likely to communicate with
other group members.
sociogram a diagram that represents relationships
within a group, especially likes and dislikes of
members for other members
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35Section 1-29
Communication Patterns (cont.)
- Another way to discover the structure of a group
is to examine the communication patterns in the
groupwho says what to whom and how often. ?
- A centralized organization seems more useful for
task-oriented groups, whereas a decentralized
network is more useful in socially oriented
groups.
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36Figure 1-2
Sociograms
37Section 1-30
Leadership
- All groups, whether made up of students, workers,
Girl Scouts, or politicians, have leaders. ?
- A leader embodies the norms and ideals of the
group and represents the group to outsiders. ? - Within the group, a leader initiates action,
gives orders, makes decisions, and settles
disputes.
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38Section 1-31
Leadership (cont.)
- Most of us think of leadership as a personality
trait. ?
- One psychologist (Stogdill, 1974) identified
leadership as being an aspect of personalitythe
ability to get people to comply. ? - Other researchers (Blake Mouton, 1985) argue
that leaders are concerned to some degree with
both output (that is, the task) and the welfare
of the people.
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39Section 1-32
Leadership (cont.)
- Another way to think of leadership is as the end
product of the reinforcements of the group being
led (Berry Houston, 1993). ?
- In this way, leadership is simply the center or
focus of group action, an instrument for
achieving the groups goal or a result of group
interaction (Stogdill, 1974). ? - Different circumstances call for different kinds
of leaders.
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40Section 1-33
Leadership (cont.)
- One kind of leadership is called transformational
leadership. ?
- This leadership produces large-scale
organizational change by changing the goals of
group members and deepening their commitment. ? - Transformational leaders are charismatic, they
provide individualized attention to group
members, and they are able to enthuse and
intellectually stimulate group members.
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41Figure 1-3
Leavitts Communication Network System
42Section 1-34
Leadership (cont.)Leadership Styles
- The three leadership styles are authoritarian,
laissez-faire, and democratic. ?
- An authoritarian leader makes all the decisions
and assigns tasks to group members. ? - A laissez-faire leader is only minimally involved
in a groups decision making. ? - A democratic leader encourages group members to
come to decisions through consensus.
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43Section 1-Assessment 1
Section Assessment
Review the Vocabulary Explain how groups
organized for task functions differ from those
organized for social functions.
Task function groups exist to get the job done.
Social function groups exist to fulfill the
emotional needs of members.
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44Section 1-Assessment 2
Section Assessment (cont.)
Visualize the Main Idea Using a graphic
organizer similar to the one found on page 554 of
your textbook, identify and describe three styles
of leadership.
Authoritarian leaders make all the decisions and
assign tasks. Laissez-faire leaders are minimally
involved and let the group make its own
decisions. Democratic leaders encourage groups to
make decisions through consensus.
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45Section 1-Assessment 3
Section Assessment (cont.)
Recall Information What is the difference
between an in-group and an out-group. Give an
example of each group.
In-group members identify with their group. All
non-members of the group are the out-group. An
example is an athletic team that considers all
people who are not starters on the team as the
out-group.
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46Section 1-Assessment 4
Section Assessment (cont.)
Think Critically When might a group benefit from
a laissez-faire style of leadership? When might a
group benefit from authoritarian leadership?
Answers will vary.
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47Section 1-Assessment Close
Section Assessment (cont.)
What kind of interaction occurs with each model? ?
Explain why the Circle network is slower but more
satisfying than the Wheel network for solving
tasks.
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48End of Section 1
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49Section 2-1
Readers Guide
Main Idea
- You may engage in behavior because of direct or
indirect group pressure or in response to orders
given by authorities. ?
Objectives
- Identify ways that groups can influence an
individuals behavior. ?
- Explain why most people tend to obey authority
figures.
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50Section 2-2
Readers Guide (cont.)
Vocabulary
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Psychology.
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555 of your textbook.
51Section 2-3
Group Pressure to Conform
- Psychologist Solomon Asch (1952) designed what
has become a classic experiment to test
conformity to pressure from ones peers. ?
- Conformity involves any behavior that you engage
in because of direct or indirect group pressure.
conformity acting in accordance with some
specified authority
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52Section 2-4
Group Pressure to Conform (cont.)
- Asch found that people may conform to other
peoples ideas of the truth, even when they
disagree. ?
- Asch found that almost one-third of his 50
participants conformed at least half the time to
the viewpoint of five hired actors. ? - These conformers he called theyielders. ?
- Asch called those who did not conform
independents.
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53Section 2-5
Group Pressure to Conform (cont.)
- According to one theory, most children are taught
the overriding importance of being liked and of
being accepted. ?
- Conformity is the standard means of gaining this
approval.
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54Figure 2-1
Aschs Experiment
These two cards were shown to participants in one
trial of Aschs experiment on conformity. The
participants task was to determine whether the
length of the standard line matches the length of
the comparison lines. The actual discrimination
is easy.
55Section 2-6
Why Do People Conform?
- One of the most important findings of Aschs
experiment was that if even one person among the
first five actors failed to conform to the
groups judgment, the participant was able to
stick to his own perceptions. ?
- It seems that it is hardest to stand alone. ?
- Later researchers have shown that under some
conditions, a minority view can come to win over
the larger group (Moscovici, 1985).
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56Section 2-7
Why Do People Conform? (cont.)
- A minority dissenter may also serve an
informational purpose by making others question
whether the majority view is actually right. ?
- In Aschs experiment, participants conformedthey
responded to match the other group members
responses, yet they might not have actually
changed their beliefs that the lines matched. ? - This is an example of compliance.
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57Section 2-8
Why Do People Conform? (cont.)
- Compliance occurs when we give in to social
pressure in our public behavior however, we do
not actually change our private beliefs. ?
- A method of gaining compliance is the
foot-in-the-door technique. ? - This occurs when you get a person to agree to a
relatively minor request. ? - This minor request, which the participant is
likely to agree with, is really a set-up for a
major request.
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58Section 2-9
Why Do People Conform? (cont.)
- There are several factors that increase
conforming behavior in people including ?
- belonging to a group that emphasizes the role of
groups rather than individuals ? - the desire to be liked by other members of the
group ? - low self-esteem ?
- social shyness ?
- lack of familiarity with a task ?
- group size ?
- cultural influences
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59Section 2-10
Obedience to Authority
- The influence other people have on your attitudes
and actions is considerable. ?
- Obedience, or behavior in response to orders
given by authorities, can be either useful or
destructive. ?
- Psychologists are more interested in the negative
aspects of obedience.
obedience a change in attitude or behavior
brought about by social pressure to comply with
people perceived to be authorities
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60Section 2-11
Obedience to Authority (cont.)
- They know from cases in history such as German
Nazism and American atrocities in Vietnam that
individuals frequently obey irrational commands. ?
- In fact, people often obey authority even when
obedience goes against their conscience and their
whole system of morality.
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61Section 2-12
The Milgram Experiment
- Psychologist Stanley Milgram conducted the most
famous investigation of obedience in 1963. ?
- Milgram wanted to discover how far participants
in an experiment would follow his instructions
and how much electric shock they would be willing
to give a fellow human being.
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62Section 2-13
The Milgram Experiment (cont.)
- As the experiment began, the learner
continually gave wrong answers, and the teacher
began to administer the prescribed shocks from an
impressive-looking shock generator. ?
- The generator had a dial that ranged from 15
volts, which was labeled Slight Shock, to 450
volts, which was labeled Danger Severe Shock.
? - After each of the learners mistakes, the teacher
was told to increase the voltage by one level.
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63Section 2-14
The Milgram Experiment (cont.)
- As the experiment progressed, the learner made
many mistakes, and the teacher was instructed to
give increasingly severe shocks. ?
- The experiment ended either when the maximum 450
volts was administered or when the teacher
refused to administer any more shocks. ? - If at any point the teacher indicated that he
wanted to stop, the experimenter calmly told him
to continue. ?
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64Section 2-15
The Milgram Experiment (cont.)
- Sixty-five percent of the participants delivered
the full range of shocks. ?
- What accounts for this surprisingly high level of
obedience? ? - Part of the answer is that the experimenter
represents a legitimate authority. ? - People assume that such an authority knows what
he is doing, even when his instructions seem to
run counter to their own standards of moral
behavior.
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65Section 2-16
The Milgram Experiment (cont.)
- Milgrams experiment is important because it
questions so many different aspects of
psychology. ?
- The experiment raised questions about the ethics
of some psychological experiments. ? - Since the experiment, the APA has changed the
ethical standards for experiments. ? - Today all experiments, especially those that
could cause harm to the participants, are
carefully screened by research committees.
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66Section 2-17
The Zimbardo Experiment
- Philip Zimbardo and his colleagues (Haney
Zimbardo, 1975) performed an experiment that
randomly divided male volunteers into two groups
prisoners and prison guards. ?
- Zimbardo sent both groups to live in a simulated
prison set up in the basement of a Stanford
University building. ? - He gave the guards instructions to maintain
order.
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67Section 2-18
The Zimbardo Experiment (cont.)
- Within two days, most of the guards had become
intoxicated with power, and they acted cruelly
toward the prisoners, often without reason. ?
- At the same time, the prisoners began showing
signs of extreme stress, often acting subdued and
depressed. ? - The emotional reactions were so extreme that
experimenters ended the planned two-week
experiment after only six days.
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68Section 2-19
The Zimbardo Experiment (cont.)
- Although the participants in this experiment were
emotionally mature and stable, the roles these
individuals adopted changed the way they acted. ?
- The experiment not only changed the ethical
standards of experimentation in psychology but it
also demonstrated the power that situations can
have in changing how we feel, think, and behave.
? - The social situation of being in the prison
changed the rules, roles, and expectations of the
students (Zimbardo, 1975).
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69Section 2-20
The Zimbardo Experiment (cont.)Why Do People
Obey?
- Psychologists have proposed that people learn to
obey authority figures. ?
- Throughout our lives, we have learned to follow
orders. ? - However, we are more likely to follow these rules
when the authority figure is actually present.
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70Section 2-Assessment 1
Section Assessment
Review the Vocabulary Give an example of a way
you show conformity.
Answers will vary. Think of useful ways to
conform, as well as ways that can lead to poor
decision making or harmful behavior.
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71Section 2-Assessment 2
Section Assessment (cont.)
Visualize the Main Idea Duplicate and complete
the chart found on page 562 of your textbook
describing the Asch experiment.
Hypothesis People will conform to a group
decision even if they know it is wrong. Method
Describe the various trials and the results of
each trial. Results Describe the results of
yielders and independents.
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72Section 2-Assessment 3
Section Assessment (cont.)
Recall Information How is compliance related to
to conformity?
Compliance is a change in behavior without an
accompanying change in thinking. Outwardly, the
person appears to be conforming.
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73Section 2-Assessment 4
Section Assessment (cont.)
Think Critically Do you think that conforming to
a group is always a negative thing to do? Explain.
No. Some examples include wearing coats in cold
weather and abiding by societys traffic
regulations.
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74Section 2-Assessment Close
Section Assessment (cont.)
Recently in a college dorm 3 people died in a
fire. Although the alarm sounded, there had been
18 false alarms in the same dorm in the four
months preceding the fire. How can something like
repeated false alarms dull the senses to the
point that antisocial or harmful behavior seems
acceptable?
75End of Section 2
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76Section 3-1
Readers Guide
Main Idea
- Conflicts between groups are a fact of everyday
life because groups influence how individuals
perceive and respond to situations. ?
Objectives
- Explain causes of group conflict and cooperation.
?
- Summarize how group dynamics promote or restrain
altruism and aggression.
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564 of your textbook.
77Section 3-2
Readers Guide (cont.)
Vocabulary
- catharsis ?
- altruism ?
- diffusion of responsibility ?
- bystander effect ?
- social loafing ?
- deindividuation
Click the Speaker button to listen to Exploring
Psychology.
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display the information. Section 3 begins on page
564 of your textbook.
78Section 3-3
Aggression
- Any behavior that is intended to cause physical
or psychological harm is called aggression. ?
- It seems that our society is being torn apart by
increasing violence and aggression. ? - Psychologists have proposed several theories to
explain aggression.
aggression behavior intended to do physical or
psychological harm to others
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79Figure 3-1
A Model of Aggression
80Section 3-4
Biological Influences
- Psychologists have proposed that humans have
innate biological factors that cause aggression. ?
- Neurotransmitters, such as serotonin, influence a
persons aggressive behavior. ? - When a person has too much serotonin in the
brain, he or she may experience violent
outbursts. ? - Psychologists, though, warn against labeling
aggression as caused by only biological factors.
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81Section 3-5
Cognitive Factors
- Psychologist Albert Bandura proposes that
children learn aggressive behavior by observing
and imitating their parents. ?
- His social learning theory also proposes that
aggressive behavior may be reinforced in several
ways ?
- Parents who use aggression to discipline their
children may be teaching their children to use
aggression. ? - The mediatelevision, movies, video games, and
musicmay also be teaching aggressive behavior to
children.
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82Section 3-6
Personality Factors
- Certain personality traits, such as impulsiveness
and having little empathy, combined with favoring
domination can turn a person into a bully. ?
- Usually past experience is the best predictor. ?
- An aggressive child usually becomes an aggressive
adult.
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83Section 3-7
Environmental Factors
- Sometimes something provokes you and you become
violent. ?
- Psychologists explain acts of violence that arise
from unexpected situations with the
frustration-aggression hypothesis. ? - This is the idea that frustration or a failure to
obtain something expected leads to aggression. ? - The hypothesis, though, fails to note that
frustration does not always lead to aggressive
behavior.
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84Section 3-8
Environmental Factors (cont.)
- Leonard Berkowitz (1989) proposed a modified
frustration-aggression hypothesis. ?
- Berkowitz proposed that frustration leads to
aggression only in certain instances.
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85Section 3-9
Controlling Aggression
- Aggression is a combination of biological,
cognitive, personality, and environmental
factors. ?
- One method of controlling aggression is through
catharsis. ? - Critics of catharsis believe that any expression
of aggression is negative.
catharsis releasing anger or aggression by
letting out powerful negative emotions
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86Section 3-10
Controlling Aggression (cont.)
- Other strategies of controlling aggression
include punishing children for violent behavior
and cutting down on the violence they observe. ?
- Aggressive behavior can be controlled by teaching
people to accept frustrations and move on and to
react to disappointments in ways other than
violence.
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87Section 3-11
Group Conflict Versus Cooperation
- Conflicts between groups are a fact of everyday
life. ?
- A group of psychologists (Sherif Hovland, 1961)
created a boys camp to study intergroup
relations. ? - From the beginning of the experiment, the boys
were divided into two groups. ? - The psychologists had hypothesized that when
these two groups of boys were placed in
competitive situations, where one group could
achieve its goals only at the expense of the
other, hostility would develop.
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88Section 3-12
Group Conflict Versus Cooperation (cont.)
- The psychologists demonstrated the ease with
which they could produce unity within the two
boys groups and hatred between them. ?
- The experimenters then tried to see what might
end the conflict and create harmony between the
two groups. ? - They deliberately invented a series of
emergencies so that the boys either would have
to help one another or lose the chance to do or
get something they all wanted.
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89Section 3-13
Group Conflict Versus Cooperation (cont.)
- Gradually, through cooperative activities,
intergroup hostility and tensions lessened. ?
- The results of this experiment showed that the
crucial factor in eliminating group hostility was
cooperation. ? - The question of conflict applies to large
communities, too, but then the possibility of a
social trap is greater. ? - A social trap occurs when individuals in a group
decide not to cooperate.
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90Section 3-14
Group Conflict Versus Cooperation (cont.)
- One approach to overcome a social trap is to use
laws to bring about behavior changes. ?
- Other ways to change peoples behavior is to
educate them concerning the issues and to
communicate the idea that Yes, you do make a
difference. ? - In this way, people find it more beneficial to
cooperate than to act in a purely selfish manner.
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91Section 3-15
Altruism
- Altruism means helping another, often with a risk
to oneself, for reasons other than the
expectation of a reward. ?
- Whether you help or not may depend on the
diffusion of responsibility.
altruism helping others, often at a cost or risk,
for reasons other than rewards
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92Section 3-16
Diffusion of Responsibility
- Sometimes when several people are faced with a
common problem and there is no opponent, they may
not even see themselves as a group. ?
- There have been many famous examples of muggings,
rapes, and murders that were committed in public
while a large group of people watched without
intervening or calling for help. ? - Psychologists have tried to find out why these
people did not act by studying artificial crises.
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93Section 3-17
Diffusion of Responsibility (cont.)
- Psychologists have suggested that this behavior
was the result of diffusion of responsibility. ?
- In other words, because several people were
present, each participant assumed someone else
would help.
diffusion of responsibility the presence of
others lessens an individuals feelings of
responsibility for his or her actions or failure
to act
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94Section 3-18
Diffusion of Responsibility (cont.)
- The researchers found that in experiments where
people could see the other participants, the same
pattern emerged. ?
- The bystander effect occurs when a person
refrains from taking action because of the
presence of others.
bystander effect an individual does not take
action because of the presence of others
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95Section 3-19
Diffusion of Responsibility (cont.)
- These findings suggest that the larger the crowd
or group of bystanders, the more likely any given
individual is to feel that he or she is not
responsible for whatever is going on (Darley
Latané, 1968). ?
- Another influence that inhibits action is the
tendency to minimize the need for any response. ? - It is easier to persuade yourself that nothing
needs to be done if you look around and see other
people behaving calmly.
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96Section 3-20
Diffusion of Responsibility (cont.)
- Both the presence of a leader and being familiar
with the person needing help, however, increase
the likelihood and speed of help being offered. ?
- The same is true of knowing what kind of help is
required, seeing the correct form of assistance
being modeled, or expecting future interactions
with the person needing help. ? - These situations increase the chances that
assistance will be offered when it is most needed
(Baron Byrne, 1991).
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97Section 3-21
Diffusion of Responsibility (cont.)Social Loafing
- Your evaluations of a situation also may lead to
social loafing. ?
- Social loafing occurs when you allow your
contributions to the group to slack off because
you realize that individual contributions are not
as apparent and easily measured in a group
setting.
social loafing the tendency to work less hard
when sharing the workload with others
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98Section 3-22
Diffusion of Responsibility (cont.)Deindividuatio
n
- When people act as individuals, obey their
consciences, and are concerned with
self-evaluation, we think of them as
individualistic. ?
- When deindividuation occurs, people lose their
sense of self and follow group behaviors.
deindividuation individuals behave irrationally
when there is less chance of being personally
identified
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99Section 3-23
Diffusion of Responsibility (cont.)Deindividuatio
n
- The deindividuated person acts without thinking
about self and goes along with the group. ?
- Researchers believe that being in a crowd may
reduce feelings of guilt or self-awareness that
one ordinarily feels. ? - Social pressure can affect us in positive ways,
too. ? - Maybe you went out of your way to act
compassionately while others witnessed your
actions.
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100Section 3-Assessment 1
Section Assessment
Review the Vocabulary How does diffusion of
responsibility affect individuals in a group?
Individuals are less likely to act and take
responsibility when others are around because
they expect someone else to act.
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101Section 3-Assessment 2
Section Assessment (cont.)
Visualize the Main Idea Using a graphic
organizer like the one shown on page 570 of your
textbook, compare and contract aggression and
altruism.
Aggression is intended to do physical or
psychological harm. Altruism is the act of
helping others without expecting a reward, and it
may involve risk. The overlap exists in that both
acts are voluntary and involve a choice by the
individual.
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102Section 3-Assessment 3
Section Assessment (cont.)
Recall Information What is deindividuation, and
how does it occur?
Deindividuation is irrational behavior performed
by an individual when there is little or no
chance of being identified. It occurs when people
lose their sense of self and let the group direct
their behavior.
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103Section 3-Assessment 4
Section Assessment (cont.)
Think Critically Do you think that most students
work harder on projects they must complete alone
for a grade or on team projects in which no
individual grades are given? Explain your
reasoning.
Answers will vary and will likely depend on the
individual and the amount of pressure exerted by
the group.
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104Section 3-Assessment Close
Section Assessment (cont.)
Why did you help or not help when your fellow
classmate accidentally dropped his or her
belongings?
105End of Section 3
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106Chapter Summary 1
Section 1 Group Behavior
- To be classified as a group, a collection of
people must demonstrate interdependence. ?
- Groups serve two general purposes task functions
and social functions. ? - To be part of a group, an individual must be
responsive to the norms of the group, subscribe
to its ideology, and be prepared to make
sacrifices in order to be part of it. ? - Groups can be differentiated by in-groups and
out-groups and primary and secondary groups.
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107Chapter Summary 2
Section 1 Group Behavior (cont.)
- Research has shown that social facilitation seems
to occur when participants perform simple tasks,
whereas social inhibition seems to occur when
participants perform more complex tasks. ?
- Group polarization and groupthink are two
processes of group decision making.
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108Chapter Summary 3
Section 2 Conformity and Obedience
- Psychologists believe that people conform to gain
approval. ?
- Compliance occurs when an individual gives in to
social pressure in his or her public behavior but
does not actually change private beliefs. ? - Psychologists believe that people conform because
they learn to obey authority figures and to
follow orders and rules.
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109Chapter Summary 4
Section 3 Conflict and Cooperation
- Aggression is a combination of biological,
cognitive, personality, and environmental
factors. ?
- Psychologists have found that the larger the
crowd or group of bystanders, the more likely any
given individual is to feel that he or she is not
responsible for whatever is going on.
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110Chapter Summary 5
Section 3 Conflict and Cooperation (cont.)
- Social loafing occurs when people allow their
contributions to the group to slack off because
they realize that individual contributions are
not as apparent and easily measured in a group
setting. ?
- When deindividuation occurs, people lose their
sense of self and follow group behaviors.
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111End of Chapter Summary
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112Chapter Assessment 1
Reviewing Vocabulary
Use the correct term or concept to complete the
following sentences.
1. _______________ occurs when the majoritys
point of view is reinforced and an extreme view
dominates. 2. A behavior that is intended to
cause physical or psychological harm is called
__________. 3. A group with a common __________
shares a set of principles, attitudes, and
defined objectives for which the group
stands. 4. __________ involves any behavior that
an individual engages in because of direct or
indirect group pressure.
Group polarization
aggression
ideology
Conformity
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display the answers.
113Chapter Assessment 2
Reviewing Vocabulary (cont.)
Use the correct term or concept to complete the
following sentences.
5. The tendency to perform poorly in front of a
group is known as _____________. 6. _____________
occurs when people lose their sense of self and
follow group behaviors. 7. Punching a pillow to
release anger is a form of __________. 8. The
tendency to perform better in the presence of a
group is known as ______________. 9. __________
is behavior in response to orders given by
authorities.
social inhibition
Deindividuation
catharsis
social facilitation
Obediance
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display the answers.
114Chapter Assessment 3
Reviewing Vocabulary (cont.)
Use the correct term or concept to complete the
following sentences.
10. The _____________ occurs when a person
refrains from taking action because of the
presence of others.
bystander effect
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115Chapter Assessment 4
Recalling Facts
Using a diagram similar to the one on page 573 of
your textbook, identify the characteristics of a
group.
Characteristics of a group are interdependence,
shared goals, and communication.
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116Chapter Assessment 5
Recalling Facts
What factors work to hold a group together? What
factors increase the commitment of a person to
the group?
Shared norms, a common ideology, and high
commitment and participation of group members
work to hold a group together. Commitment
increases when the individuals can share in group
decisions and share the rewards and when there is
a requirement of personal sacrifice.
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display the answer.
117Chapter Assessment 6
Recalling Facts
Why do people conform?
People conform to increase their sense of
belonging to a group and to avoid standing out.
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118Chapter Assessment 6
Recalling Facts
How does the cognitive theory explain aggression?
The cognitive theory assumes aggression is
learned in childhood by observing and imitating
the behavior of models.
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119Chapter Assessment 6
Recalling Facts
What are two factors that inhibit individual
action within a group setting?
Diffusion of responsibility and the bystander
effect inhibit individual action within a group
setting. Diffusion of responsibility occurs when
the presence of others lessens an individuals
feelings of responsibility. When a person
refrains from taking action because of the
presence of others, it is known as the bystander
effect.
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display the answer.
120Chapter Assessment 7
Building Skills
Interpreting a Graph
Milgram was upset about the willingness of his
participants to obey an authority. In later
experiments, he tried to find ways to reduce
obedience. He found that distance between the
teacher and the learner had an effect. The graph
on the next slide shows the percentage of
teachers who obeyed orders at three different
physical distances. Review the graph, then answer
the questions following.
121Chapter Assessment 7
Building Skills
Interpreting a Graph
122Chapter Assessment 8
Building Skills
Interpreting a Graph
What percentage of teachers obeyed orders when
they could only hear the learner?
65 percent of teachers obeyed orders when they
could only hear the learner.
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123Chapter Assessment 9
Building Skills
Interpreting a Graph
What happened to the percentage of teachers who
obeyed orders when they were in the same room and
could see the learner? When they were asked to
touch the learner?
The percentage declined to 40 percent and 30
percent, respectively.
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124Chapter Assessment 10
Building Skills
Interpreting a Graph
What reasons can you give for the differences in
the percentage of participants obeying authority
in the three physical distances illustrated in
the graph?
The better one knows a person or the closer one
physically is to a person, the less likely one
will be to harm that person. It could be said
that it is easier to harm another when you dont
have to witness the consequences.
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125Chapter Assessment 11
I have just been hired by a large company that
was once a leader in its markets but has not kept
up with the changes in technology. I have been
told that I have three years to make the company
profitable. What kind of leader do I need to be?
I need to be a transformational leader
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126End of Chapter Assessment
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