John Ingram

1
Linking Spatial and Temporal Scales and Levels in
Human Systems Examples in the context of food
security

• John Ingram
• Global Environmental Change and Food Systems
  (GECAFS)
• john.ingram_at_eci.ox.ac.uk

2
Aims of the presentation

1. Discuss the nature of scales and levels in human
   systems.
2. Show how a food systems framework helps
   identify key aspects of human systems in the
   context of food security.
3. Show value of research at regional level in
   helping to link between global and local levels
   in human systems.
4. Give examples of how the human dimension of food
   systems can enhance or hinder food security.

3
Scale and Level (Cash et al, 2006, Ecology and
Society )
Scale the quantitative or analytical dimension
used to measure and study any phenomenon Level th
e unit of analysis that is located at different
positions on a given scale
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Different scales and levels critical in
understanding and responding to food system
interactions
Source Cash et al., 2006 Ecology and Society
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Different scales and levels critical in
understanding and responding to food system
interactions cont.
Source Cash et al., 2006 Ecology and Society
6
Cross-level, cross-scale, multi-level and
multi-scale interactions
Source Cash et al., 2006 Ecology and Society
7
Food security
... exists when all people, at all times, have
physical and economic access to sufficient, safe,
and nutritious food to meet their dietary needs
and food preferences for an active and healthy
life. (World Food Summit 1996)
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Why choose Food Security for thinking about
scales and levels in human systems?

• Food security is a fundamental human goal.
• Pursuit of food security has been intimately
  interwoven with the evolution of many
  human/societal structures, eg
• laws regulations
• customs ceremonies
• trade commerce
• These structures operate on several scales (e.g.
  temporal, jurisdictional, ) and at several
  levels within each scale (e.g. national,
  regional, ).
• Interactions between and within these scales are
  critical to understanding the controls on food
  security and interactions with the Earth System.

9
Food security
... exists when all people, at all times, have
physical and economic access to sufficient, safe,
and nutritious food to meet their dietary needs
and food preferences for an active and healthy
life. (World Food Summit 1996)
... is underpinned by Food Systems.
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Food System Concept
Food System ACTIVITIES Producing food natural
resources, inputs, markets, Processing
packaging food raw materials, standards, storage
requirement, Distributing retailing food
transport, marketing, advertising, Consuming
food acquisition, preparation, customs,
... exists when all people, at all times, have
physical and economic access to sufficient, safe,
and nutritious food to meet their dietary needs
and food preferences for an active and healthy
life. (World Food Summit 1996)
Food System OUTCOMES Contributing to

• Environmental
• Conditions
• Ecosystem stocks flows
• Ecosystem services
• Access to natural capital

• Social Conditions
• Income
• Employment
• Wealth
• Social capital
• Political capital
• Human capital

Food Security, i.e. stability over time for
FOOD UTILISATION
FOOD ACCESS

• Affordability
• Allocation
• Preference

• Nutritional Value
• Social Value
• Food Safety

FOOD AVAILABILITY

• Production
• Distribution
• Exchange

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3 key Scale Challenges situations in which the
current combination of cross-scale and
cross-level interactions threatens to undermine
food security
Ignorance the failure to recognise important
scale and level interactions in food systems
altogether, e.g. El Nino-induced changes in
anchovy catch in the E Pacific and N-efflux from
global soyabean production Mismatch the
persistence of mismatches between levels and
scales in food systems, e.g. food security
responses for weather extremes planned at
national level vs. community level Plurality the
failure to recognise heterogeneity in food
systems in the way that scales are perceived and
valued by different actors, even at the same
level, e.g. local food aid programmes vs. local
social safety-nets
Based on Cash et al., 2006 Ecology and Society
12
Regional-level studies help identify Scale
Challenges when trying to link global to local
food security issues

• 1. Climate and weather-related perturbations are
  often experienced and are increasingly
  available at the regional level
• adaptation strategies focussed on human systems
  may prove more effective if managed at the
  regional level.
• Environmental management issues related to food
  security may manifest strongly at regional level
• solutions to such problems may often require
  supra-national policy considerations (e.g.
  agreements on inter-basin transfers of water).
• Regional governance structures have been
  established in many parts of the world
• offer a clear client for discussing research on
  scale challenges.

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Scale Challenges across human systems at
regional scale 3 examples for southern Africa
Food System ACTIVITIES Producing Processing
Packaging Distributing Retailing Consuming

• Food trade
• global vs. regional formal/informal trade
• Food distribution
• food aid in 91/92 drought
• Food retailing
• the role of supermarkets

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1. Food trade Formal informal trading systems
operate at different levels and are often nested
and/or overlapping
Informal cross-border trade Malawi received ca.
75 of the total amount of maize traded
informally in the region (WFP, 2006).
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Example Scale Challenges related to food trade

• Ignorance
• Formal national and donor food security
  strategies may not account for informal trade

• Mismatch
• Trade barriers and lack of harmonisation of
  trading systems and tariffs constrain food
  movements across borders

• Plurality
• Both formal and informal trade systems key to
  satisfying national food security

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2. Food distribution 1991/92 drought

• 2.6 million sq miles stricken by drought
• 86 million people affected
• 20 million people at serious risk
• 1.5 million refugees and displaced people
• Six corridors for food aid shipments from
  regions main ports Dar es Salaam Nacala Beira
  Maputo RSA Walvis Bay Luanda
• Example human system impediments
• Different quarantine regulations
• Transit toll fees
• Poor port labour management (no incentives to
  work more than necessary)

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Example Scale Challenges related to
distribution of emergency food aid

• Ignorance
• National toll quarantine policies vis à vis
  regional donor approach
• Global response vis à vis poor regional port
  management

• Mismatch
• Jurisdiction of the national institutions not
  coterminous with supplying food to region
• Urgency of food need poorly-matched with
  institutional response speed

• Plurality
• Conflict between humanitarian requirements and
  commercial concerns
• Variety of objectives among donors, recipients
  and regional institutions

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3. Food retailing The increasing role of
supermarkets

• Rapid rise of supermarkets in the southern
  Africa, proliferating beyond middle-class
  big-city markets into smaller towns and poorer
  areas
• Transforming the food retail sector (already gt55
  of South African food retail)
• Changing consumption patterns more choice
  strong marketing usually promoting more processed
  foodstuffs
• Supplying supermarkets potentially offers large
  opportunities for producers but also presents two
  big challenges
• procurement systems involve purchase
  consolidation, a shift to specialised wholesalers
  and tough quality and safety standards
• investments and new practices is hard, esp. for
  small producers

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Example Scale Challenges related to supermarkets

• Ignorance
• Small scale producers have little information
  about standards for food quality and processing

• Mismatch
• Supermarket purchasing systems not well suited to
  many small producers

• Plurality
• Processed foods are increasingly available but
  erode traditions based on local food

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Conclusion 1 Helps set cross-scale, cross-level
research questions
How would interactions among rules, laws and
constitutions affect food system adaptation at
different spatial levels? How would short-term
changes in donor philosophy for food- and
seed-aid as applied at the local level affect
long-term regional self-reliance? How would
implementing different short-term adaptation
policies in different nations influence regional
food security goals?
Institutional
Spatial
Temporal
Management
Jurisdictional
Management
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Conclusion 2 Importance of Scales and Levels
when analysing Food Systems in context of drivers
and feedbacks
Environmental feedbacks e.g. water quality, GHGs
GEC DRIVERS Changes in Land cover soils,
Atmospheric Comp., Climate variability means,
Water availability quality, Nutrient
availability cycling, Biodiversity, Sea
currents salinity, Sea level
Food System ACTIVITIES Producing food Processing
Packaging food Distributing Retailing
food Consuming food
Natural DRIVERS e.g. Volcanoes Solar cycles
DRIVERInteractions
Food System OUTCOMES Contributing to
Food Security
Social Welfare
EnvironWelfare
Socioeconomic DRIVERS Changes in Demographics,
Economics, Socio-political context, Cultural
context Science Technology
Food Utilisation
Food Access
Food Availability
Socioeconomic feedbacks e.g. livelihoods, social
cohesion