Recommended Websites:

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Biology I Mr. Galloway
Chapters 29-33 The Kingdom Of Plants
Recommended Websites www.soulcare.org www.icr.org
www.AnswersInGenesis.org
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Feeding the WorldPeople Population 6 billion
today and growing. Scientists are developing
more useful plants. How? Genetic engineering,
selective breeding, etc. On farms, new more
efficient high-tech machines and practices are
used. Precision Farming with computers,
technology for watering, fertilizing,
management. Hydroponics is a method to grow
plants in solutions of nutrients instead of
soil. This is useful in areas where the soil
is poor or rocky.s But, hydroponics cost a lot
of money to conduct.
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What does the Bible say about plants? Scripture
never uses the Hebrew term Nephesh for plants.
It is only used for creatures that can think,
feel, experience joy, or suffer, such as animals
and humans. Genesis 111-13  11 Then God said,
"Let the earth bring forth grass, the herb that
yields seed, and the fruit tree that yields fruit
according to its kind, whose seed is in itself,
on the earth" and it was so. 12 And the earth
brought forth grass, the herb that yields seed
according to its kind, and the tree that yields
fruit, whose seed is in itself according to its
kind. And God saw that it was good. 13 So the
evening and the morning were the third day.
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Plants are organic (living) machines, designed by
God for food, building materials, clothing,
beauty, and the production of oxygen through
photosynthesis. Genesis 129-31  29 And God
said, "See, I have given you every herb that
yields seed which is on the face of all the
earth, and every tree whose fruit yields seed to
you it shall be for food. 30 Also, to every beast
of the earth, to every bird of the air, and to
everything that creeps on the earth, in which
there is life, I have given every green herb for
food" and it was so. 31 Then God saw everything
that He had made, and indeed it was very good. So
the evening and the morning were the sixth day.
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Gods Flood Destroyed Plants

• Some Plants Survived Plants seeds survived
  both in the Ark and outside.
• Some Died Out (Extinction) Many plants with
  essential amino acids (complete proteins) were
  wiped out.
• Then vegetarianism was no longer a viable way to
  get all necessary nutrients.

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Only after sin, separation from God, and the
globally catastrophic flood did God give
permission for man to humanely kill and eat
nephesh creatures animals. Yet even then, God
commanded man not to eat the blood, because it
represented the creatures nephesh life, which
can feel, think, and suffer. Genesis 91-4 1 So
God blessed Noah and his sons, and said to them
"Be fruitful and multiply, and fill the earth. 2
And the fear of you and the dread of you shall be
on every beast of the earth, on every bird of the
air, on all that move on the earth, and on all
the fish of the sea. They are given into your
hand. 3 Every moving thing that lives shall be
food for you. I have given you all things, even
as the green herbs. 4 But you shall not eat flesh
with its life, that is, its blood.
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When Jesus comes again and restores a new earth
and new heaven, the pain, fear, suffering and
death of nephesh creatures will no longer exist.
The wolf and lion will eat grass like the ox,
and will lay down peacefully with the lamb.
(Isaiah 11 and 65)
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Plant Cell Structure
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Remember that plant-like protists did not have
differentiated tissues. But True PLANTS do
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Plant Growth Characteristics
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General Plant Characteristics All are
multicellular, autotrophic eukaryotes. All
have cell walls Most live on land, so . . . .
. . . Living on LAND requires special
adaptations to survive 1. Obtaining Water and
Other Materials from the soil 2. Retaining water
so it doesnt evaporate out of the plant -
Cuticle waxy, waterproof layer covering leaves
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3. Transporting materials (food, water, minerals,
etc.) throughout the plant. - Tissues groups
of similar cells that perform specific
functions. - Vacular Tissues are special
transporting tissues in vascular plants.
(They are tube like structures for moving food
and water inside the plant.) 4. Support is
needed to keep the plant standing and growing up
to reach the sunlight. - Vascular tissues in
vascular plants give strength. 5. Special
Reproduction is another adaptation for plants to
live on land . . . . . .
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ALTERNATION OF GENERATIONS

• For sexually reproducing multicellular organisms
  such as plants and animals, the life cycle
  requires that diploid cells divide by meiosis to
  create haploid cells. Haploid cells then fuse to
  recreate the diploid number and a new organism.
• Alternation of generations refers to the
  occurrence in the plant life cycle of both a
  multicellular diploid organism and a
  multicellular haploid organism, each giving rise
  to the other.
• This is in contrast to animals, in which the only
  multicellular phase is the diploid organism (such
  as the human man or woman), whereas the haploid
  phase is a single egg or sperm cell.

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Alternation of generations is easiest to
understand by considering the fern. The large,
leafy fern is the diploid organism. On the
undersurface of its fronds or leaves, its cells
undergo meiosis to create haploid cells. However,
these cells do not immediately unite with others
to recreate the diploid state. Instead, they are
shed as spores and germinate into small haploid
organisms. Because the diploid organism creates
spores, it is called the sporophyte generation of
the life cycle. Upon reaching maturity, the
haploid organism creates haploid egg and sperm
cells (gametes) by mitosis. Because the haploid
organism creates gametes, it is called the
gametophyte generation of the life cycle. The
male gametes (sperm) are then released and swim
to the female egg. Fusion of the gametes creates
the new diploid sporophyte, completing the life
cycle.
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ALTERNATION OF GENERATIONS.
This type of life cycle, which alternates between
the Gametophyte Phase and the Sporophyte
Phase. As an adaptation of plants, this cycle
provides for sexual reproduction, which ensures
there will be genetic recombination in plants.
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Details of ALTERNATION OF GENERATIONS Plant
life cycles are different from most animals.
Plants have TWO stages or generations in their
cycles. - Sporophyte Stage the plant is
diploid (2n) and produces haploid (1n) spores.
Spores are tiny cells that grow into the next
stage. - Gametophyte Stage the plant is haploid
(1n) and produces two kinds of haploid sex cells
(sperm and eggs) Gametes are what the haploid
sex cells are called. Then sexual
reproduction occurs by fertilization, when a
sperm cell unites with an egg cell. Zygote is
the term for the new fertilized egg, which
grows into a new plant.
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ALTERNATION OF GENERATIONS.
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Nonvascular - Seedless plants Mosses,
Liverworts, and Hornworts No vascular tissue
(no tube like transport pipes) Have no roots,
no flowers Without roots or vascular tissue,
these plants must grow low to the ground and near
moist areas. Water and food flows slowly from
cell to cell, and they are not strong enough to
grow tall.
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Spanish Moss is NOT a moss!
The Spanish Moss hanging from our cypress and
oak trees is NOT really a true moss.
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Why Spanish Moss is NOT a real moss! A true
moss is a tiny green plant reproducing with
spores, not with flowers, fruits and seeds, the
way Spanish moss does. Spanish Moss is
actually a member of the Pineapple Family, the
only member of that huge, mainly tropical family
in our area. (Photos by Dennis
Adams) http//www.co.beaufort.sc.us/bftlib/spanish
.htm
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Spanish moss has flowers, so its NOT moss
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True Mosses (Over 10,000 species) Structure
rhizoids are rootlike structures as anchors,
which absorb water and nutrients. -
Gametophyte generation is the common green fuzzy
moss - Sporophyte generation grows out of the
gametophyte, and is a skinny stalk with a
capsule full of spores at the top.
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Sporophyte
Gametophyte
Rhizoid
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True moss
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True moss
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Importance of Mosses Peat Moss containing
sphagnum moss is used by gardeners. Bogs are
where sphagnum moss grows naturally. - Bog water
is so acidic that no bacteria grows to decompose
dead mosses. - So the mosses pile up at the
bottom in a thick mat call Peat. Mosses are
pioneer plants like lichens, meaning they are the
first to grow in areas where forest burned out or
volcanoes erupted. Wind blown soil catches in
them and builds up for other plants to grow.
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Bog preserved heads of a deceased humans
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Liverworts (over 8,000 species) are shaped sort
of like a human liver. Not mosses Grow flat
along the ground, or on moist rocks. Hornworts
(less than 100 species) Not mosses look
like liverworts, but have tiny horn shaped
sporophytes growing out of them. grow in
moist soil
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Liverworts
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Hornworts
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Giant Extinct Ferns
Vascular - Seedless Plants Ferns, Club Mosses,
and Horsetails Depiction of giant, extinct ferns
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Ferns, Club Mosses, and Horsetails What
happened to the giant, extinct ferns we now see
buried in rock as fossils? They were buried
rapidly during the global flood of Noahs day.
They did not decay because they were covered
immediately in sediment. These fossils are not
millions of years old as the textbook authors
believe. Please see the evidence presented by
scientists at www.answersingenesis.org
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Fern Structure
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Structures of a Fern
Frond
Pinnae
Stipe
Rhizome
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Fern Characteristics Vascular Tissue -
Solves the need for support and transportation
of water and nutrients. - Strength is added
like bundling a bunch of straws together.
Spores (Not Seeds) - These plants release
spores that grow into gametophytes, which
produce egg cells and sperm cells, which need
lots of water for fertilization to occur.
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Vascular Tissue (Two Types) 1. Phloem to
transport (move) food made in leaves to the rest
of the plant. 2. Xylem to transport water and
nutrients from the roots into the plant.
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Vascular Tissues Illustrated in a Carrot (Not a
fern)
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Ferns Fossil records are dated by radiometric
methods that are very unreliable. (See Dr.
Russell Humphreys articles on www.answersingenesi
s.org) Structure true stems, roots, and
leaves - fronds are fern leaves - roots and
stems grow underground to absorb water and
nutrients - leaves grow above ground to absorb
sunlight and carbon dioxide - some young leaves
are curled and called fiddleheads, until
maturity as they uncurl
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Reproduction in Ferns Sporophyte stage is the
common fern with its fronds (leaves). Under
the fronds are spore cases filled with
spores. Wind and water carry the spores, which
develop into the gametophyte stage. Fern
gametophytes are tiny plants that grow low to the
ground. Fern Importance - houseplants, some
are eaten, some serve symbiotically in rice
farmer fields
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Fern fiddle-heads
Fern plant and spore cases
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Club Mosses (not true mosses) and Horsetails
tiny needlelike branches (Vascular Tissue, but
spores to reproduce, so they are seedless)
Very small and very few species left today.
Some club mosses look like tiny pine tree
branches growing out of the ground. (ground pine
or princess pine) Horsetails (only 30 species
left)
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Club Moss
Horsetail
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Characteristics of Seed Plants
Two Characterisitics 1 - Vascular Tissue 2 -
Seeds to Reproduce Example Dandelions seed
head hundreds of fruits, each with a seed.
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Seeds structures that contain a young plant
inside a protective covering. Seed plants do
not need water in the environment to
reproduce. - Sperm cells are delivered directly
to the area where the eggs are. - Fertilized
eggs (zygotes) develop into seeds. - The seed
covering keeps it from drying out.
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Seed Parts 1. Embryo the zygote, which is
a tiny plant inside the covering. 2.
Cotyledons one or two seed leaves which store
food for growth. 3. Seed Coat keeps it from
drying out (some last thousands of years).
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The Structure of Seeds
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Endosperm (3n)
Seed Coat
Cotyledon
Plumule
Epicotyl
Hypocotyl
Radicle
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Seed Dispersal the scattering of seeds away
from the parent plant. Animals eat fruit and
seeds exit their digestive tract. Some seeds
have hooks to stick to animal fur. Water and
wind disperse other seeds (Pine seed
helicopters) Some shoot out their seeds when
the drying seed pod burst open. Germination
early growth stage of the plant embryo. Begins
when the seed absorbs water. Then the embryo
uses the stored food (cotyledon) for energy.
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Seed Dispersal Methods
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Leaves Many different sizes, shapes. (Pine
needles, cabbage, oak, etc.) Capture suns
energy for photosynthesis Structure of a leaf
- Upper surface cells - Chloroplasts -
Veins with xylem and phloem - Underside surface
cells - Stomata (stoma in Greek means
mouth, opening)
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The Structure of a Leaf
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Cuticle
Upper Epidermis
Palisade mesophyll
Vascular Bundle
Spongy mesophyll
Lower Epidermis
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VENATION
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Transpiration process of evaporation from
leaves. Too much evaporation and the plant
shrivels and dies Closing the stomata helps
slow down transpiration.
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Stems support the plant and carry substances
between the roots and leaves. Some stems also
store food (starches) like in asparagus. They
vary in size and shape - Boabab tree has a huge
stems. - Cabbage have short, hidden stems.
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Structure of stems - Herbaceous (soft)
dandelions,tomato plants - Woody (hard) like
trees and rose bushes - Both have xylem and
phloem, but woody stems have extra
layers Outer Bark Inner Bark (phloem) Cambium
(to produce new phloem and xylem) Sapwood
(active xylem - still transporting) Heartwood
(inactive xylem) just gives strength Pith
(center storing food water in young trees)
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Parts of a Woody Stem
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Annual Rings xylem rings Spring Xylem is
wide light brown (grows rapidly) Summer Xylem
is thin darker (grow slower) Each pair of
light dark rings one years growth.
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Roots (Anchors. Absorbs water nutrients from
soil) Two Types 1. Taproot deep into
soil 2. Fibrous Roots several branching main
roots Root structure - Root Cap the rounded
tip containing dead cells. - Root hairs increase
surface absorption area - Cambium produces
xylem and phloem tissues. - Xylem transports
substances up to the plant - Phloem brings food
down to the growing root
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Fibrous Roots
Tap Root
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Root Internal Structure
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Roots do not absorb water and minerals through a
smooth Epidermis.  Tiny, hairlike projections
called ROOT HAIRS on the epidermis absorb water
and dissolved minerals from the soil.  Root Hairs
also INCREASE the Surface Area of the Plant
Roots. 
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Epidermis
Cortex
Pith
Xylem
Phloem
Endodermis
Dicot Root
Monocot Root
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Gymnosperms Gymnosperm seed plant that
produces naked seeds. Many have needlelike or
scalelike leaves and deep root systems. Note
the book says fossils indicate there were many
more gymnosperms in the past than today. This is
because the global flood 4,000 years ago wiped
out many plants. (The dates given by many
books of millions of years are false guesses.
See the booklet by Dr. Humphreys.)
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• Types of Gymnosperms
• - Cycads (look like palm trees with large cones)
• - Ginkgo (only the Ginkgo biloba survives today)
• - Gnetophytes (found only in deserts
• - Conifers (largest most common, pines,
  cedars, etc.)
• Conifers are evergreens keep needles all year

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Oldest living organism Bristlecone Pine About
4,000 years old just after Noahs Flood.
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• Reproduction of Gymnosperms
• Cones covered in scales, both male and female
  cones are produced.
• - Pollen is produced by male cones, and pollen
  are tiny cells that later become sperm cells.
• Ovule is a structure containing an egg cell.
  Pollination transfer of pollen from male
  structure to female part.
• (Pollen falls from a male cone to a female cone
  and fertilizes an ovule, which develops into a
  seed, with the zygote as the embryo part of the
  seed. It can take two years for seeds to mature,
  then the cones open wind carries the seeds off.)

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The Life Cycle Of a Gymnosperm
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Angiosperms Angiosperms Two characteristics
1. flowers 2. fruit (To remember, think
Angie likes flowers, but Gym does not.)
They produce seeds inside a fruit. Flower
angiosperm reproductive structure Fruit
starts as an Ovary where the seeds develop
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Flower Structure Not all flowers have same
parts. Some have only male parts. Sepals
leaf-like structures covering a bud. Petals
colorful structures of an open flower. Stamens
male parts (stalks topped by knobs) Pistils
the female parts in the center of the
flower. - Stigma sticky tip of the pistil -
Style tube connecting stigma to ovary.
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The Structure of a Flower
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Flower Structure
Stigma
Filament
Style
Anther
Ovary
Receptacle
Petal
Sepal
Ovule
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Life Cycle Of an Angiosperm
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Reproduction of Angiosperms Pollination
Pollen falls on a stigma when wind, bees, or bats
carry it. (Sugar-rich nectar in the flower
attracts bees or bats.) Fertilization sperm
egg join together in the flowers ovule. - The
zygote develops into the embryo part of the
seed. - The ovary around the seed develops into
a fruit. (Apples, cherries, tomatoes, squash,
etc. are all fruit.) Dispersal animals eat
the fruit and the seeds come out the other end.
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Two types of Angiosperms 1. Monocots have
only one seed leaf (cotyledon) (grasses, corn,
wheat, rice, lilies, tulips) (flowers have
either 3 petals or a multiple of 3 petals) (long
slender leaves with veins parallel like train
rails) (vascular tissue scattered randomly in
the stem) 2. Dicots have two
cotyledons (roses, violets, plus oak, maple,
bean, and apple trees) (flowers have 4 or 5
petals or multiples of these numbers) (leaves
are wide, with veins branches off one
another) (vascular tissue bundles arranged in a
circle) Angiosperms are used for food, clothing
(cotton), Michaels medicine (digoxin)
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Seed Structure Examples
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Plant Responses and Growth Did God make plants
like the bladderwort and venus fly trap to eat
insects?
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Tropism a plants growth response toward or
away from a stimulus. Positive tropism is when
it grows toward a stimulus. Negative is when it
grows away from it. Stimuli can be light,
touch, and even gravity. - Touch (thigmotropism)
vines coil around anything they touch. -
Light (phototropism) leaves, stems, etc, grow
toward light. - Gravity (gravitropism) (Positi
ve) roots grow toward gravitys pull (Negative)
stems grow away from its pull
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Hormones a chemical that affects how the plant
grows and develops, make tropism possible.
Hormones also control germination, formation of
flowers, stems, and the shedding of leaves and
ripening of fruit. Auxin is an important
hormone that speeds up plant cell growth rate. -
If light shines on one side of a stem, auxin
moves to the shaded side and causes that side to
grow faster so the stem bends toward the light
as it grows.
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Life Spans of Angiosperms Annuals complete
a life cycle in one year. (pansies, wheat,
tomatoes, cucumbers, etc) Biennials complete
life cycle in two years. (Second year they
produce flowers and seeds.) (Parsley, celery,
etc) Perennials live for more than two years
(Oak tree, honeysuckles, etc) (Roots and stems
survive the winter)
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Stem Positive Phototropism, Negative
Gravitropism Roots Negative Phototropism,
Positive Gravitropism
Auxins
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Flowering is a form of PhotoperiodismIt is
controlled by Critical Night Length CNL

• If the daytime period is broken by a brief
  exposure to darkness, then there is no effect on
  flowering.
• If the night-time period is broken by a short
  exposure to light, photoperiod responses are
  disrupted and plants do not flower.
• Short-day plants flower if night is longer than
  CNL.
• Long-day plants flower if night is shorter than
  CNL.

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To Flower Short-Day Plants need a night longer
than its CNL. Long-Day Plants need a night
shorter than its CNL.
CNL 14 hrs
CNL 8 hrs
No
Yes
Yes
No
No
Yes