Presenting Scientific Work

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Presenting Scientific Work - Written-
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The publication process
Write paper (more on this in a minute)
Make sure format of the paper agrees with journal
style
Submit paper (usually electronically)
PUBLISHED!!
Editor acknowledges receipt
Paper is sent to 2 or 3 reviewers
Editor gives final acceptance
Paper is reviewed again
Reviewers recommend acceptance or rejection
Reviews are mixed
Re-submit paper with changes
Sent to a 3rd or 4th reviewer
Revised for comments you think are reasonable
rebut those you think are unreasonable
Accept as is
Editor decides to accept or reject
Accept with revisions
Reject
Rewrite and submit elsewhere
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The publication process
Write paper (more on this in a minute)
Make sure format of the paper agrees with journal
style
Submit paper (usually electronically)
PUBLISHED!!
Editor acknowledges receipt
Paper is sent to 2 or 3 reviewers
Editor gives final acceptance
About a year
Paper is reviewed again
Reviewers recommend acceptance or rejection
Reviews are mixed
Re-submit paper with changes
Sent to a 3rd or 4th reviewer
Revised for comments you think are reasonable
rebut those you think are unreasonable
Accept as is
Editor decides to accept or reject
Accept with revisions
Reject
Rewrite and submit elsewhere
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Generally- two types of work
Scientific Paper Title Abstract KeywordsIntroduct
ion Materials and Methods Results Discussion Concl
usions Literature Cited
Essay -less structured
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Types of Writing
Scientific writing is more structured and
economical than non-scientific (e.g. writing for
Arts/Humanities courses)
e.g. this is from an essay in a Biology course at
Mt. A.
When most people think of algae, they either
think of the slimy green stuff in a lake, or
the masses of seaweed that float aimlessly in the
sea. Chlorine companies make millions a year
producing products that would prevent the build
up of algae in a swimming pool. However algae,
although it might seem as a nuisance to some,
undoubtedly is very important to the ecosystem.
It is also of substantial economic use to human
society. We have learned to exploit algaes
natural properties and use it for our own
beneficial needs., Throughout this paper,
several areas of algae will be covered, which
will include physical characteristics,
reproduction, types of algae, and their economics
uses in society.
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Types of Writing
Scientific writing is more structured and
economical than non-scientific (e.g. writing for
Arts/Humanities courses)
e.g. this is from an essay in a Biology course at
Mt. A.
A gentle critique
When most people think of algae, they either
think of the slimy green stuff in a lake, or
the masses of seaweed that float aimlessly in the
sea. Chlorine companies make millions a year
producing products that would prevent the build
up of algae in a swimming pool. However algae,
although it might seem as a nuisance to some,
undoubtedly is very important to the ecosystem.
It is also of substantial economic use to human
society. We have learned to exploit algaes
natural properties and use it for our own
beneficial needs., Throughout this paper,
several areas of algae will be covered, which
will include physical characteristics,
reproduction, types of algae, and their economics
uses in society.
Too diverse for one essay
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Scientific Paper
Title Titles should be informative but not
overly long OR overly cute.
Good title The effects of three levels of
cadmium on the production of thyroid stimulating
hormone in Richardsons ground squirrel,
Spermophilus richardsoni,
Too long a title The effects of levels 13, 27
and 40 nmol of cadmium on the pre- and
post-lactation production of thyroid stimulating
hormone in small fuzzy mammals as exemplified by
studies on captive populations of Richardsons
ground squirrel, Spermophilus richardsoni.
Too cute a title Mate choice in hermaphrodites
you wont score with a spermatophore
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Scientific Paper
Abstract
An abstract is a précis of the entire paper and
should be about 5 of its length. This means
that for a 3000 word paper the abstract is about
150 words (or 10-15 typed lines) Every section
of the paper (Introduction, Materials and
Methods, Results, Discussion, Conclusions) should
be represented by at least one sentence in the
Abstract.
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Scientific Paper Keywords
Keywords are words that describe a paper. They
serve as locators for topics when researchers are
search for papers in a particular area. For
example, a recent paper with the
title Mechanisms of reproductive isolation
among sympatric broadcast spawning corals of the
Monastrea annularis species complex Has the
keywords Coral reef, fertilization,
hybridization, mass-spawning, speciation
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Scientific Paper Introduction

• one of the hardest sections to write
• should present historical and/or theoretical
  precedents to the problem or subject
• should outline the main areas of the argument in
  the field
• should end with a statement of the objectives or
  hypothesis of the work to follow

Literature review
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Original thesis introduction
The northern rock barnacle (Semibalanus
balanoides) is a common inhabitant of the north
Atlantic rocky intertidal (Bertness, 1999). As a
dominant organism within the intertidal area, it
presents an ideal organism for the study of the
effects of latitudinal variation within the Bay
of Fundy. S. balanoides are sessile, filter
feeding invertebrates, and are commonly found
along the mid to high intertidal region of the
rocky intertidal (Bertness, 1999). Described as
shrimp-like organisms encased in calcium
carbonate shell (Bertness, 1999), they feed by
extending appendage-like cirri through an open
operculum, and ìbeatingî their cirri in order to
allow for water current formation and nutrient
uptake (Anderson, 1994). S. balanoides are
simultaneous hermaphrodites, meaning that they
are capable of acting as male and female at the
same time (Charnov, 1982). As such, the northern
rock barnacle has both functional male and female
gonads encased within its body cavity. This
makes S. balanoides an interesting organism for
the study of the effects of geographic variation
on the rate of gonad development. In S.
balanoides, the ovaries lie in basal mantle
tissue, near the attachment point of the barnacle
to the substrate (Anderson, 1994) (Figure 1).
The testes are subdivided into several follicles,
located within the body cavity in the prosoma,
thorax and limb bases (Anderson, 1994) (Figure
1). S. balanoides exhibit internal fertilization
(Bertness, 1999). Upon fertilization of the
eggs, brooding embryos are incubated within the
mantle cavity, after which they are released as
naupliar larvae (Bertness, 1999). At this stage,
the larvae act as passive particles in the water
column, and pass through four naupliar larvae
stages (Bertness, 1999). After the fourth
naupliar larvae stage, the larvae metamorphoses
to a cyprid larvae (Bertness, 1999). It is at
this stage that the developing barnacle will
attach to the substrate via the use of adhesive
antennal glands, and will begin to secrete its
calcerous external plates, leading to its adult
form (Bertness, 1999) (Figure 2). Figure 1
Lateral section through body cavity of
Semibalanus balanoides, showing the location of
the ovaries and testes. Figure 2 Diagram of
life cycle of Semibalanus balanoides. Living
organisms have a given amount of energy available
for the purposes of growth, maintenance and
reproduction (Heath, 1977). Simultaneous
hermaphrodites face the added cost of having to
invest in the production and maintenance of both
male and female reproductive structures (Heath,
1977). Thus, when compared to a similar
gonochoristic species, the simultaneous
hermaphrodite is at an energetic disadvantage due
its higher investment in reproductive structures
(Heath, 1977). Charnov (1982), notes that the
production of male and female gametes is directly
proportional to the barnacleís access to
resources. Thus, if resources are low, this
condition is expected to be identifiable by the
amount of energy allocated to reproduction. The
purpose of this study is to determine how
changing latitude affects the timing of the
development of sperm, eggs and embryos.
Furthermore, I will determine whether or not the
size of S. balanoides varies significantly with
latitude. I hypothesize that as latitude
increases, a delay in development of Semibalanus
balanoides will be detected. I further
hypothesize that the size of sampled barnacles
will decrease as latitude increases
INTRODUCTION The Earth is divided into two
different planes. Longitude refers to the globe
on an ëeast to westí axis, whereas latitude
refers to the Earthís division in a north to
south orientation. The effects of different
latitude have long been of interest to
biologists, as different geographic position
along a north to south axis is hypothesized to
change abiotic factors, such as food availability
(Linse et.al., 2006), temperature and salinity
(Bertness and Ewanchuk, 2002). These abiotic
factors, in turn, play a large role in
determining specific biological interations, as
well as species responses to changing
environmental conditions. It is widely
recognized in the biological sciences that
differences in latitude result in changes in
environmental condition. Several studies
regarding the influence of latitudinal
differences on biological systems have been
completed. Bergmanís and Allenís rules, which
states that animals living closer to the North
Pole have shorter appendages and larger body
sizes than their conspecifics at lower latitudes
is an example of one of the many effects
different latitudes may have on development
(Darlington, 1966). Bertness and Ewanchuck
(2002) investigated the role that latitudinal
variation plays in the biological interactions of
New England salt marshes. They found that at
higher latitudes, competition between
neighbouring plants increased, and at lower
latitudes the relationship between neighbouring
marsh plants became more facilitative (Bertness
and Ewanchuck, 2002). Leonard (2000) concluded
that interactions between the common intertidal
algae, Ascophylum nodosum, and the Northern rock
barnacle (Semibalanus balanoides) vary according
to geographic location. He reported that the
reproductive fitness potential of barnacles at
southern sites was facilitated by the algal
canopy, whereas at northern sites the
reproductive fitness potential of individuals was
reduced by the algal canopy (Leonard, 2000).
Molecular analysis has also revealed that
genetic differences in the Northern rock barnacle
(Semibalanus balanoides) exist between different
sites along the Maine Coast (Rand et.al., 2002).
Differences in allozyme genotypes between
barnacles sampled at sites along the Maine Coast
have been attributed to differences in
microhabitat between the different sampling sites
(Rand et.al., 2002). Caldwell (2004), found
that S. balanoides found at different regions
within the rocky intertidal are subject to
differing abiotic environments. Due to the high
energetic costs required to survive high on the
intertidal, such as dessication, low nutrient
availability and oxygen stress, barnacles found
in this area show a slower rate of development
(Caldwell, 2004). Barnacles were sampled from
low, middle and high tide levels at Cape Enrage,
New Brunswick. Differences in rates of
development were found in individuals sampled
from the high intertidal area, with these
individuals showing almost a monthís
developmental delay when compared to their
conspecifics found within the mid to low
intertidal areas (Caldwell, 2004). In addition
to this delay in development, almost half of the
barnacles sampled at high tide were found to be
lacking any development ovary and oocyte
development (Caldwell, 2004).
Bouchard, 2007
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INTRODUCTION Studies on the correlation of
latitudinal gradients with various aspects of any
species ecology are well known. Early studies
resulted in the generation of several
ecophysiological rules (e.g. Allens, Bergmanns,
Glogers and Rapoports) (Hall and Hallgrimson,
2008). These very general rules hide the fact
that the response of several species to
ecological and climatic changes associated with
different latitudes are not always consistent.
Some studies show predictable changes with
latitude (e.g. Barnes and Barnes 1965, Crisp
1959, Hummel et al 1985, Jonsson and LAbbé- Lund
1993, Nebel 2005). Others show discontinuous
latitudinal clines that can be ascribed to
variation in local conditions such as temperature
(Barnes 1958, Rand et al 2002, Schmidt and Rand,
1999), primary productivity (Bertness et al,
1991), restriction of gene flow (Brown et al,
2001, Dufresne et al, 2002, Holm and Bourget,
1994), hydrodynamic conditions (Connoly et al
2001, Haase 2003, Hayden and Dolan 1976)
shoreline exposure (Kirby et al 1997) and
behaviour (McClain 1985, Nebel 2005). Still
other studies have pointed to the interactions
between biotic and abiotic factors on a species
(Leonard, 2000). The acorn (or northern rock)
barnacle (Semibalanus balanoides L.) is a common
inhabitant of rocky intertidal shorelines of the
western Atlantic. Its distribution on the shore
is confined to the barnacle band (Stephenson
and Stephenson, 1972) whose lower limit within
the tide range is thought to be determined by
biological interactions and the upper limit by
abiotic factors (Bertness, 1999). Studies on
clinal variation in S. balanoides have pointed to
temperature as a controlling factor. While
temperature may be involved, its influence is not
simple. Barnes (1958) and Crisp (1959) showed
that temperature was a factor in egg development
only above an 8? or 9?C winter isotherm and the
effects of temperature lessened as development
proceeded. Davenport et al (2005) concluded that
temperature had no effect on breeding phenology
in S. balanoides . Responses to temperature and
thermal stress can depend on the genetic
composition of local populations (Rand et al
2001, Schmidt and Rand 1999) and restriction of
gene flow (Brown et al, 2001). Finally, some
authors (Barnes and Barnes 1958, Bertness et al
1991) have shown that primary production and food
availability is a more important factor than
temperature in growth and reproduction. We
examined changes in the reproductive phenology
and size of S. balanoides across a latitudinal
gradient in the Bay of Fundy. At one location we
have studied (Cape Enrage, N.B), S. balanoides
typically mates in October and November, broods
embryos in January and February and releases
nauplii in February and March (Aiken,
unpublished). In this study, we hypothesize that
this cycle would start earlier in the lower
(southern) Bay of Fundy and become progressively
later at higher latitudes.
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Scientific Paper Materials and Methods

• should allow exact duplication of the experiment
  or field study
• can be tricky to decide this - how much detail is
  too much??

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Scientific Paper Results

• Should be very well organized
• Should present data so that the relevance of the
  results to the hypothesis is clear
• Present data once - either in a table or in some
  figure but NOT both
• Use the text to highlight important trends or
  results but not as a written restatement of the
  results

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Scientific Paper Results Some presentation hints
1. Use an appropriate graph
For continuous data
For discrete data
And generally - use a graph instead of a
table (more important in a talk)
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??

Proportion of infected birds




Vancouver
Toronto
Halifax
New York
Dallas
Locality
Implication is that there is a point on the
X-axis for each one on the Y
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??





Proportion of infected birds
Vancouver
Toronto
Halifax
New York
Dallas
Locality
For a publication dont use colour
This is a bar graph
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2003
2005
2007
Proportion of infected birds
Vancouver
Toronto
Halifax
New York
Dallas
Locality
This is a grouped bar graph
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Histograms
-x-axis is continuous
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Line graphs




Heart rate
Heart rate






Exercise time
Exercise time
Interpolated (join-the dots)
Fitted (regression)
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Avoid too much information
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Avoid too much information
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Scientific Paper Results Some presentation hints
2. Write the results from a biological point of
view not a statistical one
Bad An unpaired t-test with a t value of 4.56,
23 degrees of freedom and a p of .001 of the
number of days that nestlings spent in the nest
showed that offspring of older birds left their
nest later than offspring of younger birds
Better The number of days that nestling spent
in the nest was significantly lower for young
parents (unpaired t-test, t .456, df 24,
p.001)
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Scientific Paper Discussion

• should analyse in words what you think your data
  mean
• should show the relevance of your findings to
  other literature in the field
• should show how your findings contribute to any
  controversies or ambiguities in the field
• should BRIEFLY suggest avenues for further
  research

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Scientific Paper Literature cited
Few people appreciate that there is a difference
between a Bibliography and Literature (or
References) Cited Bibliography is all the
reference material you looked up on a subject
whether you cited it in the text of your paper or
not Literature (or References) Cited are ONLY
those references that appear in the text of your
paper
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Scientific Paper Literature cited

• There are a great number of stylistic differences
  in how references are cited but there are a few
  general rules that apply to most papers
• All cited literature goes in alphabetical order
  of first author at the end of the paper.
• All references used in the paper must be cited at
  the end.
• References from the non-professional literature
  (e.g. National Geographic, newspapers, popular
  magazines) are generally frowned upon
• Websites are terrible reference material. Never
  use them!
• The only exception to (4) is electronic
  peer-reviewed journals

For a summary of ways to cite various kinds of
articles http//www.mta.ca/raiken/Courses/4401/c
itation.html
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A final sneaky little trick My own preference
when writing a scientific paper is to write the
sections in the following order
Working title Materials and Methods Results Discus
sion Conclusions Introduction Literature
Cited Title Abstract Keywords
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Essays
Essays are more difficult to assign rules (beyond
style and grammar) but a few things to keep in
mind

1. An essay should have a well-defined theme to it.
   Its not just an arbitrary collection of facts on
   a topic.

• 2. An essay should have a fairly narrow theme to
  it. If you wanted to do an essay on The
  behaviour of beavers, youre already in trouble.
  An essay on Maternal behaviour in beavers and
  its consequences for offspring survival would be
  much better because you have already focussed the
  topic.

• 3. Avoid extraneous, off-the-topic material.
  You would not put information on how beavers
  build dams or the effect of beaver dams on
  farmland in the essay above.

• 4. Generally, follow the rules for writing
  introductions and discussions of scientific
  papers. The only thing to keep in mind is that
  the data you use in support of whatever
  arguments you are making comes from the
  literature and not from your own experiments

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Essays
Essays are more difficult to assign rules (beyond
style and grammar) but a few things to keep in
mind

• Avoid dramatic, cute or flowery writing
• e.g. In our maternal behaviour in beavers
  example

A really bad introduction is Beaver mothers,
like all other mothers in the animal kingdom,
give their babies a great deal of care and
affection
A really bad conclusion is So we have seen how
beaver mothers work hard to make sure their
babies will have a successful life. Perhaps we,
as humans, can learn from their example and build
a better societies for all of us to live in.
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Aikens Use-These-Words-Incorrectly-And-Youll-Di
e List
Effect and affect - effect is a noun, affect is
a verb Impact - its a noun - dont use it as
a verb (better still, dont use it at
all) Amount and number - amount refers to
continuous quantities, number refers to discrete
quantities (i.e. number of people not an
amount of people) Varying - it means
changing or fluctuating - it does not mean
different Basically - overused and drifting
to being meaningless Data - its plural -
data are not data is Compare to - the
proper expression is Compare between Between/am
ong - between refers to two objects, among to
more than two Which/that - this is tricky but
that is restrictive, which means it tells you a
necessary piece of information about its
antecedent. Which is non-restrictive it does
not limit the word to which it refers.
http//andromeda.rutgers.edu/jlynch/Writing/index
.html
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Aikens Use-These-Words-Incorrectly-And-Youll-Di
e List
AND JUST FOR BIOLOGY Genus - the plural is
genera not genuses Species -singular and
plural are the same word Italics - either
underline or put in italics the genus and species
name ( the binomial) for any organism - e.g.
Homo sapiens or H. sapiens Methodology --ology
on the end of a word means study of. For
example, Biology is the Morphology study of
life. Methodology is the study of methods and
morphology is the study of Etc. structure.
Use methods and structure
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Aikens Use-These-Words-At-All-And-Youll-Die
List
quite, very, extremely, as it were, moreover,
it can be seen that, it has been indicated
that, basically, essentially, totally,
completely, therefore, it should be remembered
that, it should be noted that, thus, it is
imperative that, at the present moment in time.