Div 08

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BUILDING TECHNOLOGY I
Div 08 DOORS AND WINDOWS
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1. GLASS
Glass is a hard, brittle, chemically inert
substance produced by fusing silica together with
a flux and a stabilizer into a mass that cools to
a rigid condition without crystallization. It is
used in building construction in various forms.
Foamed or cellular glass is used as rigid, vapor
proof thermal insulation.
Glass fibers are used in textiles and for
material reinforcement. In spun form, glass
fibers form glass wool, which is used for
acoustical and thermal insulation.
Glass block is used to control light
transmission, glare, and solar radiation.
Glass, however, is used most commonly to glaze
the window, sash and skylight openings of
buildings.
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1. GLASS
The three major types of flat glass are the
following Sheet glass is fabricated by drawing
the molten glass from a furnace (drawn glass), or
by forming a cylinder, dividing it lengthwise,
and flattening it (cylinder glass). The
fire-polished surfaces are not perfectly
parallel, resulting in some distortion of vision.
To minimize this distortion, glass should be
glazed with the wave distortion running
horizontally. Plate glass is formed by rolling
molten glass into a plate that is subsequently
ground and polished after cooling. Plate glass
provides virtually clear, undistorted
vision. Float glass is manufactured by pouring
molten glass onto a surface of molten tin and
allowing it to cool slowly. The resulting flat,
parallel surfaces minimize distortion and
eliminate the need for grinding and polishing.
Float glass is the successor to plate glass and
accounts for the majority of flat-glass
production.
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1. GLASS
Other types of glass include the following

• Annealed glass is cooled slowly to relieve
  internal stresses.
• Heat-strengthened glass is annealed glass that is
  partially tempered by a process of reheating and
  sudden cooling. Heat-strengthened glass has
  about twice the strength of annealed glass of the
  same thickness.
• Tempered glass is annealed glass that is reheated
  to just below the softening point and then
  rapidly cooled to induce compressive stresses in
  the surfaces and edges of the glass and tensile
  stresses in the interior. Tempered glass has
  three to five times the resistance of annealed
  glass to impact and thermal stresses but cannot
  be altered after fabrication. When fractured, it
  breaks into relatively harmless pebble-sized
  particles.
• Laminated or safety glass consists of two or more
  plies of flat glass bonded under heat and
  pressure to interlayers of polyvinyl butyral
  resin that retains the fragments if the glass is
  broken. Security glass is laminated glass that
  has exceptional tensile and impact strength.

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1. GLASS other types

• Wired glass is flat or patterned glass having a
  square or diamond wire mesh embedded within it to
  prevent shattering in the event of breakage or
  excessive heat. Wired glass is considered a
  safety glazing material and may be used to glaze
  fire doors and windows.
• Patterned glass has a linear or geometric surface
  pattern formed in the rolling process to obscure
  vision or to diffuse light.
• Obscure glass has one or both sides acid-etched
  or sandblasted to obscure vision. Either process
  weakens the glass and makes it difficult to
  clean.
• Spandrel glass is an opaque glass for concealing
  the structural elements in curtain wall
  construction, produced by fusing a ceramic frit
  to the interior surface of tempered or
  heat-strengthened glass.
• Insulating glass is a glass unit consisting of
  two or more sheets of glass separated by a
  hermetically sealed air space to provide thermal
  insulation and restrict condensation glass edge
  units have a 3/16 (5) air space metal edge
  units have a ¼ or ½ (6 or 13) air space.

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1. GLASS other types

• Tinted or heat-absorbing glass has a chemical
  admixture to absorb a portion of the radiant heat
  and visible light that strike it. Iron oxide
  gives the glass a pale blue-green tint cobalt
  oxide and nickel impart a grayish tint selenium
  infuses a bronze tint.

• Reflective glass has a thin, translucent metallic
  coating to reflect a portion of the light and
  radiant heat that strike it. The coating may be
  applied to one surface of single glazing, in
  between the plies of laminated glass, or to the
  exterior or interior surfaces of insulating
  glass.

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1. GLASS other types

• Low-emissivity (low-e) glass transmits visible
  light while selectively reflecting the lo9nger
  wavelengths of radiant heat, produced by
  depositing a low-e coating either on the glass
  itself or over a transparent plastic film
  suspended in the sealed air space of insulating
  glass.

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1. GLASS
Weight
Maximum Area
Nominal Thickness
Type
Glass Product
psf
(mm)
inches
(mm)
inch
Verify maximum sizes with glass
manufacturer Any glass 1/8 or thicker can be
tempered, except for patterned or wired glass
tempered glass can also be incorporated into
insulating or laminated glass units Reflective
coatings may be applied to float, plate,
tempered, laminated or insulating glass
1.22 1.63
(1525 x 1525) (1525 x 2030)
60 x 60 60 x 80
(2.4) (3.2)
SS 3/32 DS 1/8
AA, A, B
Sheet Glass
3.28 1.64 3.28
(7 m2) (1880 x 3050) (3250 x 5180)
75 sf 74 x 120 128 x 204
(6.4) (3.2) (6.4)
¼ 1/8 ¼
Mirror Glazing
Float or Plate
4.10 4.92 6.54 8.17 9.18 11.45
(3150 x 5080) (3150 x 5080) (3050 x 5080) (3050 x
5080) (2920 x 5080) (2920 x 5080)
124 x 200 124 x 200 120 x 200 120 x 200 115 x
200 115 x 200
(7.9) (9.5) (12.7) (15.9) (19.1) (22.2)
5/16 3/8 ½ 5/8 ¾ 7/8
Glazing
Heavy Float or Plate
1.60 2.40
(1525 x 3355) (1525 x 3355)
60 x 132 60 x 132
(3.2) (5.6)
1/8 7/32
Various patterns
Patterned Glass
3.50 3.50 2.82 3.50 4.45
(1525 x 3660) (1525 x 3660) (1370 x 3050) (1525 x
3660) (1525 x 3660)
60 x 144 60 x 144 54 x 120 60 x 144 60 x 144
(6.4) (6.4) (5.6) (6.4) (9.5)
¼ ¼ 7/32 ¼ 3/8
Polished-mesh Patterned-mesh Parallel wires
Wired Glass
3.30 4.80 6.35 8.00
(1830 x 3050) (1830 x 3050) (1830 x 3050) (1830 x
3050)
72 x 120 72 x 120 72 x 120 72 x 120
(6.4) (9.5) (12.7) (15.9)
¼ 3/8 ½ 5/8
(2) 1/8 float Heavy float
Laminated Glass
1 psf 47.88 Pa
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1. GLASS
Weight
Maximum Area
Nominal Thickness
Type
Glass Product
psf
(mm)
inches
(mm)
inch
1.64 2.45 3.27 4.90 6.54 1.64 2.45 3.27 4.90 6.54
(3 m2) (3050 x 3660) (3250 x 5180) (3150 x
5080) (3050 x 5080) (3 m2) (3050 x 3660) (3250 x
5180) (3150 x 5080) (3050 x 5080)
35 sf 120 x 144 128 x 204 124 x 200 120 x 200 35
sf 120 x 144 128 x 204 124 x 200 120 x 200
(3.2) (4.8) (6.4) (9.5) (12.7) (3.2) (4.8) (6.4) (
9.5) (12.7)
1/8 3/16 ¼ 3/8 ½ 1/8 3/16 ¼ 3/8 1/2
Bronze Gray
Tinted Glassd

• Solar energy transmission reduced 35 to 75
• Visible light transmission reduced 32 to 72
• R-value 1.61
• R-value 1.61
• R-value 1.72
• R-value 2.04
• R-values for units w/ ½ air space and low-e
  coating
• e 0.20, R 3.13
• e 0.40, R 2.63
• e 0.60, R 2.33

2.40 3.20 3.27 3.27 4.90 4.90 6.54 6.54
(0.9 m2) (2.2 m2) (2.0 m2) (2.0 m2) (3.2
m2) (3.8 m2) (4.6 m2) (6.5 m2)
10 sf 24 sf 22 sf 22 sf 34 sf 42 sf 50 sf 70 sf
(9.5) (11.1) (12.7) (19.1) (15.9) (22.2) (19.1)
(25.4)
3/8 7/16 ½ ¾ 5/8 7/8 ¾ 1
Glass edge units 3/16 air space 3/16 air
space Metal edge units ¼ air space ½ air
space ¼ air space ½ air space ¼ air space ½
air space
Insulating Glass (2) 3/32 sheets (2) 1/8
sheets (2) 1/8 Sheet, plate or float (2)
3/16 Plate or float (2) ¼ Plate or float
1 psf 47.88 Pa
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2. HARDWARE
2.01 NAILS
Nails are straight, slender pieces of metal
having one end pointed and the other enlarged and
flattened for hammering into wood or other
building materials as a fastener.

• Nails are usually of mild steel, but may also be
  of aluminum, copper, bras, zinc or stainless
  less.
• Tempered, high-carbon steel nails are used for
  greater strength in masonry applications.
• The type of metal used should be compatible with
  the materials being secured to avoid loss of
  holding power and prevent staining of the
  materials.

Material

• Nail lengths are designated by the term penny
  (d).
• Nails range in length from 2d, about 1 (25)
  long, to 60d about 6 (150) long
• Nail length should be about 3 x thickness of the
  material being secured
• Large diameter nails are used for heavy work
  while lighter nails are used for finish work
  thinner nails are used for hardwood rather than
  for softwood.

Length and Diameter of the Shank
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2. HARDWARE
2.01 NAILS

• For greater gripping strength, nail shafts may be
  serrated, barbed, threaded, fluted or twisted.
• Nail shafts may be cement-coated fro greater
  resistance to withdrawal, or be zinc-coated for
  corrosion resistance.

Form of the Shank

• Flat heads provide the largest amount of contact
  area and are used when exposure of the heads is
  acceptable.
• The heads of finish nails are only slightly
  larger than the shaft and may be tapered or
  cupped.
• Double-headed nails are used for easy removal in
  temporary construction and concrete formwork

Nail Heads

• Most nails have diamond-shaped points.
• Sharp-pointed nails have greater holding strength
  but may tend split some woods blunt points
  should be used for easily split woods.

Nail Points
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2. HARDWARE
2.01 NAILS

• Pneumatic nailers and staplers, driven by a
  compressor, are capable of fastening materials to
  wood, steel or concrete.
• Powder-driven fasteners use gunpowder charges to
  drive a variety of studs into concrete or steel.

Power-Driven Fasteners
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2. HARDWARE
2.02 SCREWS
Screws are metal fasteners having tapered,
helically threaded shanks and slotted heads,
designed to be driven into wood or the like by
turning, as with a screwdriver. Because of their
threaded shafts, screws have greater holding
power than nails, and are more easily removable.
The more threads they have per inch, the greater
their gripping strength. Screws are classified
by use, type of head, material, length and
diameter.

• Material steel, brass, aluminum, bronze,
  stainless steel
• Lengths ½ to 6 (13 to 150)
• Diameters up to 24 gauge

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2. HARDWARE
2.02 SCREWS
The length of a wood screw should be about 1/8
(3) less than the combined thickness of the
boards being joined, with ½ to 2/3 of the screws
length penetrating the base material.
Fine-threaded screws are generally used for
hardwoods while coarse-threaded ones are used for
softwoods. Holes for screws should be predrilled
and be equal to the base diameter of the threads.
Some screws, such as self-tapping and drywall
screws, are designed to tap corresponding female
threads as they are driven.
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2. HARDWARE
2.03 BOLTS
Bolts are threaded metal pins or rods, usually
having a head at one end, designed to be inserted
through holes in assembled parts and secured by a
mating nut. Carriage bolts are used where the
head may be inaccessible to the placement of a
nut or where an exceptionally long bolt would be
needed to penetrate a joint fully.

• Lengths ¾ to 30 (75 to 760)
• Diameters ¼ to 1-¼ (6 to 32)

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2. HARDWARE
2.03 BOLTS

• Washers are perforated disks of metal, rubber or
  plastic used under the head of a nut or bolt or
  at a joint to distribute pressure, prevent
  leakage, relieve friction or insulate
  incompatible materials.
• Lock washers are specially constructed to prevent
  a nut from shaking loose
• Load-indicating washers have small projections
  that are progressively flattened as a bolt is
  tightened, the gap between the head or nut and
  the washer indicating the tension in the bolt.

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2. HARDWARE
2.03 BOLTS

• Expansion bolts are anchor bolts having a split
  casing that expands mechanically to engage the
  sides of a hole drilled in masonry or concrete.
• Molly is a trademark for a brand of expansion
  bolt having a split, sleevelike sheath threaded
  so that turning the bolt draws the ends of the
  sheath together and spreads the sides to engage a
  hole drilled in masonry or the inner surface of a
  hollow wall.
• Expansions shields are lead or plastic sleeves
  inserted into a predrilled hole and expanded by
  driving a bolt or screw into it.

• Toggle bolts are used to fasten materials to
  plaster, gypsum board and other thin wall
  materials. They have two hinged wings that close
  against a spring when passing through a
  predrilled hole and open as they emerge to engage
  the inner surface of a hollow wall.

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2. HARDWARE
2.03 BOLTS

• Rivets are metal pins that are used for
  permanently joining two or more structural steel
  members by passing a headed shank through a hole
  in each piece and hammering down the plain end to
  form a second head. Their use has been largely
  superseded by the less labor-intensive techniques
  of bolting or welding.

• Explosive rivets, used when a joint is accessible
  from one side only, have an explosive-filled
  shank that is detonated by striking the head with
  a hammer to expand the shank on the far side of
  the hole.

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2. HARDWARE
2.04 ADHESIVES
Adhesives are sued to secure the surfaces of two
materials together. Numerous types of adhesives
are available, many of them being tailor-made for
use with specific materials and under specified
conditions. They may be supplied in the form of
a solid, liquid, powder or film some require a
catalyst to activate their adhesive properties.
Always follow the manufacturers recommendations
in the use of an adhesive. Important
considerations in the selection of an adhesive
include

• Strength Adhesives are usually strongest in
  resisting tensile and shear stresses and weakest
  in resisting cleavage or splitting stresses.
• Curing or setting time This ranges from
  immediate bonding to curing times of up to
  several days.
• Setting temperature range Some adhesives will
  set at room temperature while others require
  baking at elevated temperatures.
• Method of bonding Some adhesives bond on
  contact while others require clamping or higher
  pressures.
• Characteristics Adhesives vary in their
  resistance to water, heat, sunlight and chemicals
  as well as their aging properties.

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2. HARDWARE
2.04 ADHESIVES
Common types of adhesives

• Animal or fish glues are primarily for indoor use
  where temperature and humidity do not vary
  greatly they may be weakened by exposure to heat
  or moisture.
• White or polyvinyl glue sets quickly, does not
  stain and is slightly resilient.
• Epoxy resins are extremely strong, waterproof and
  may be used to secure both porous and nonporous
  materials they may dissolve some plastics.
  Unlike other adhesives, epoxy glues will set at
  low temperatures and under wet conditions.
• Resorcin resins are strong, waterproof and
  durable for outdoor use, but they are flammable
  and their dark color may show through paint.
• Contact cement forms a bond on contact and
  therefore does not require clamping. It is
  generally used to secure large sheet materials
  such as plastic laminate.

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END OF DIVISION 08 DOORS AND WINDOWS