ENGLISH HISTORICAL GRAMMAR

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ENGLISH HISTORICAL GRAMMAR
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NOUNS present-day English 3 (natural)
genders masculine, feminine, neuter
(inanimate) 2 numbers singular, plural 2 cases
common case, possessive case most nouns 2
(spoken) or 4 (written) forms bo? boy boys
bo?z boys boys
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All creatures, heavens and angels, the sun and
the moon, the stars and the earth, animals and
birds, the sea and all fish, God created and made
in six days. Ealle gesceafta, heofonas and
englas, sunnan and monan, steorran and eorþan,
nytenu and fugelas, s? and ealle fiscas, God
gesceop and geworhte on six dagum.
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OE NOUNS 3 (grammatical) genders masculine,
feminine, neuter 2 numbers singular, plural 4
cases nominative, genitive, dative,
accusative 8 different forms (stem case/number
ending)
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Different inflectional patterns gt different
DECLENSIONS 6 major, several minor declensions
4 vocalic (strong) declensions stem ends in a
vowel (a, o, u, i) 1 consonantal (weak)
declension stem ends in a consonant (n) 1 root
declension stem equals the root
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a-declension n-declension root
declension stan stanas nama naman mann
menn stanes stana naman namena mannes
manna stane stanum naman namum menn
mannum stan stanas naman naman mann
menn word word sunne sunnan wordes worda su
nnan sunnena worde wordum sunnan sunnum word word
sunnan sunnan
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THE FINAL FRICATIVE VOICING wolf-wolves,
thief-thieves, bath-baths, mouth-mouths,
house-houses, loaf-loaves, half-halves,
life-lives BUT dwarfs/dwarves, hoofs/hooves,
scarfs/scarves AND beliefs, chiefs, roofs OE
N/A sg. wulf, OE N/A pl. wulfas OE wulfas gt
ME wulves gt NE w?lvz wolves
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THE ZERO PLURAL neuter nouns in the
a-declension, monosyllabic, long syllable OE
N/A sg. word, N/A pl. word OE N/A sg. hus,
N/A pl. hus but OE sg. scip, pl. scipu
nyten, pl. nytenu
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ME. word es hus es .. But
sheep lt OE sceap deer lt OE deor. so
also fish, trout, quail
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THE MUTATION PLURAL mouse-mice, louse-lice,
man-men, tooth-teeth, goose-geese,
woman-women PALATAL MUTATION/ i-MUTATION Germ.
mus-, pl. mus-iz- OE N/A sg. mus, N/A pl.
mys ME mus, pl. mis NE ma?s mouse, ma?s
mice
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A sound law operating in North Germanic and West
Germanic dialects pre-OEa gt OE æ, e/_
nasal pre-OE o gt OE e pre-OE u gt OE y pre-OE
eo, ea gt OE ie under the influence of i in
the next syllable The same rules apply to long
accented vowels and diphthongs
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OE sg. wif-mann, pl. wif-menn ME sg. wimman,
pl. wimmen sg. wumman, pl. wummen NE
sg. w?m?n woman, pl. w?m?n women
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THE n-PLURAL ox-oxen, child-children,
brother-brethren OE n-declension
(masculine) oxa oxan oxan oxena oxan oxum
oxan oxan OE oxan gt ME oxen gt NE ?ksn oxen
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OE cild, N/A pl. cildru OE cildru gt ME
childre, childer en gt NE ??ldr?n
children OE broþor, pl. broþor ME brother, pl.
brother, brotheres, bretheren NE br?ð?z,
breðr?n brothers, brethren
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FOREIGN PLURAL MARKERS alumnus alumni bacillus
bacilli datum data stratum strata genus
genera analysis analyses criterion
criteria phenomenon phenomena
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Ealle gesceafta, heofonas and englas, sunnan and
monan, steorran and eorþan, nytenu and fugelas,
s? and ealle fiscas, God gesceop and geworhte on
six dagum. DO ealla gesceafta, heofonas and
englas, sunnan and monan, eorþan and steorran,
nytenu and fugelas, s? and ealle
fiscas, S God P gesceop and geworhte A on
six dagum.
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ealle gt ME all(e) gt NE all gesceafta A. pl.
fem., N. sg. gesceaft heofonas A. pl. masc., N.
sg. heofon englas A. pl. masc., N. sg.
engel sunnan A. sg. fem., N. sg. sunne monan
A. sg. masc., N. sg. mona eorþan A. sg. fem.,
N. sg. eorþe steorran A. pl. masc. N. sg.
steorra nytenu - A. pl. neut. N. sg.
nyten fugelas A. pl. masc., N. sg. fugel s? -
A. sg. neut. fiscas A. pl. masc., N. sg.
fisc
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God N. sg. masc. gesceop 3rd p. sg.
preterite, indicative infinitive
(ge)sceapan geworhte 3rd p. sg. preterite,
indicative infinitive wyrcan dagum D. pl.
masc., N. sg. dæg
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THE CASE OE four cases nominative, genitive,
dative, accusative a-declension n-declension m
utation plurals stan stanas nama naman mann
menn stanes stana naman namena mannes
manna stane stanum naman namum menn
mannum stan stanas naman naman mann
menn
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The only surviving ending -es (Genitive
singular, a-declension OE es gt ME ?z gt NE
z Marys gt NE s Mats gt NE iz
Bruces From late OE spreading to all
masculine, all neuter, all feminine and plural
nouns Apostrophe since 1650 in singular, since
1780 in plural In ME case endings replaced with
prepostional endings OE .hit liiode Herode and
eallum þe him mid ston ME and (it) pleside to
Eroude and also to men restynge NE and
pleased Herod and them that sat with him
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THE FUNCTION OF SAXON GENITIVE OE Hwæs bidde
ic? . Iohannes heofod þæs fulluhteres verbs and
adjectives governed different cases we synt
Abrahames cynnes partitive meaning Herodiascan
dohtor possessive meaning In NE mostly
restricted to possessive function and human
beings
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• PERSONAL PRONOUNS
• NE I you he she it
• me you him her it
• we you they
• us you them
• unlike nouns, case distinction
• 2nd person singular 2nd person plural
• common case objective case
• gender distinction in 3rd person singular only
• Scandinavian pronouns in 3rd person plural

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OE PERSONAL PRONOUNS 1st 2nd 3rd
singular ic þu he heo hit min þin his hie
re his me þe him hiere him me þe hine heo hit
plural we ?e hie ure eower hiera us eow
hem, heom, him us eow hie
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1st singular, 3rd singular masculine, 1st
plural NE common case lt OE nominative case NE
objective case lt OE dative
ic þu he heo hit min þin his hiere his me þe him
hiere him me þe hine heo hit we ?e hie ure eow
er hiera us eow hem, heom, him us eow hie
OE ic gt ME i(c, i gt NE ai I OE me gt ME me gt
NE mi me OE he gt ME he gt NE hi he OE him gt
ME him gt NE him him OE we gt ME we gt NE
wi we OE us gt ME us, us gt NE ?s us
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3rd person singular neuter OE common case OE
accusative case NE common, objective case OE
hit gt ME hit gt NE ?t it 3rd person singular
feminine OE nominative lost NE common case lt
? OE dative case gt NE objective case
ic þu he heo hit min þin his hiere his me þe him
hiere him me þe hine heo hit we ?e hie ure eower
hiera us eow hem, heom, him us eow hie
OE heo gt ME he, hje, hjo ME sje, she gt NE ?i
she OE hiere gt ME her(e gt NE h? her
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þu ?e þin eower þe eow þe eow
2nd person singular, plural OE nominative
singular gt NE common case singular (obsolete) OE
dative singuar gt NE objective case singular
(obsolete) OE þu gt ME thou gt NE ðau thou OE
þe gt ME thee gt NE ði thee OE nominative
plural gt NE common case plural (obsolete) OE
dative plural gt NE common/objective case
singular/plural OE ?e gt ME ye? gt NE ji ye OE
eow gt ME you gt NE ju you plural ? singular
(13th - 18th century) objective case ? common
case (14th 17th century)
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3rd person plural OE nominative case gt lost OE
objective case gt lost? OE hie gt ME he?
thei (12th c.) gt NE ðe? they OE hem, heom gt
ME hem, NE ?m em, them (14th c.) gt
ðem them And specially from every shires
ende of Engelond to Caunterbury they wende the
holy blisful martyr for to seke that hem hath
holpen whan that they were seke
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POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS OE genitives of personal
pronouns also used as possessives. Possessives
were declined, they displayed gender and
number agreement urne gedæghwamlican hlaf syle
us tðdæg and forgyf us ure gyltas swa swa we
forgyfað urum gyltendum
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1st 2nd 3rd singular ic þu he heo
hit min þin his hiere his me þe him hiere him
me þe hine heo hit plural we ?e hie ure
eower hiera us eow hem, heom, him us
eow hie
NE my, mine his our, ours your, yours her,
hers your, yours its their, theirs
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1st person singular OE min gt ME min gt NE
main mine (disjunctive) ME
mi, mi gt NE m?, ma? my (conjunctive) 2nd
person singular (obsolete) OE þin gt ME thin gt
NE ða?n thine (disjunctive) ME thi(n,
thi gt NE ða? thy (conjunctive)
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2nd person plural OE N. sg. masc. eower gt ME
your gt NE j??, j? your 3rd person
plural OE N. sg. masc. hiera gt ME her(e
ME their gt NE ð?? their
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CONJUCTIVE (ATTRIBUTIVE) AND DISJUNCTIVE
(PREDICATIVE) POSSESSIVES mine, thine accent
related hers, ours, yours, theirs
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REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS In OE regular personal
pronouns were used in reflexive position Bycgaþ
eow ele . He hine restan wolde Occasionally,
reinforced with the adjective self Romane selfe
sædon Ic swerige ðurh me selfne
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The old system of reflexive pronouns me
self us self thee self you self him self them
self her self it self self adjective gt self
noun ? personal pronouns gt possessive pronouns
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The new system of reflexive pronouns my
self our self thy self your self his
self their self her self it(s) self self
pluralized, combination of the old system (3rd
person) and of the new system (1st and 2nd
persons) myself ourselves yourself yourselves
himself themselves herself itself
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Modern English usage cf. She dressed and
left for work. The little girl dressed herself
and came down the stairs.
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DEMONSTRATIVES Old English demonstratives
this N. sg. masc. þes N. pl. þas N. sg.
fem. þeos N. sg. neut. þis that N. sg.
masc. se, se N. pl. þa N. sg. fem. seo N. sg.
neut. þæt
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• ARTICLES
• THE DEFINITE ARTICLE
• In OE unaccented that demonstratives
• occasionally used as the definite article
• masc. sg. fem. sg. neut. sg. pl.
• N. se seo þæt þa
• G. þes þ?re þes þara
• D. þ?m þ?re þ?m þ?m
• þone þa þæt þa
• L. þe
• I. þy
• ME the gt NE ð? the

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the comparative/superlative of adverbs The
sooner the better. He runs (the)
fastest ..forþam wæs sanctus Paulus þy
strangra on godum weorcum .. þæt her þy mara
wisdom on lande w?reþy we ma geþeoda
cuþon. even more OE þy, þe gt ME the gt
NE the ð?
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The indefinite article OE þæt dyde unhold
mann an enemy did that he bestealcode on land
swa swa wulfhe stole into the land like a
wolf occasionally .. an mann wæs eardiende
on Israhela þeode a man lived in Israel ...
nim sume tigelan take a tablet OE an gt ME
on, won, wo?n gt NE wun, wun gt w?n one OE an
gt ME an, a(n) gt NE ?n, ? ME an gt NE
æn, e? a, an RESTRESSED FORMS
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ADJECTIVES Old English adjectives displayed
number, gender and case agreement with the nouns
which they modified. strong and weak
declension an god mann wæs eardiende. Se goda
mann wæs halig The choice of the declension
depended on the specific or non-specific
reference of the modified noun STRONG ENDINGS
NON-SPECIFIC (INDEFINITE) REFERENCE WEAK ENDINGS
SPECIFIC (DEFINITE) REFERENCE
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Strong declension singular plural masc.
fem. neut. all cwic cwicu cwic cwice cwi
ces cwicre cwices cwicra cwicum cwicre cwicum
cwicum cwicne cwice cwic cwice cwice (cwicre
) Weak declension cwica cwice cwice cwican cw
ican cwican cwican cwicra cwican cwican cwica
n cwicum cwican cwice cwican cwican
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MIDDLE ENGLISH The ending e was the only
ending retained strong singular strong
plural (an) good man (many) goode men weak
singular weak plural (the) goode man the
goode men The final e ceased to be pronounced
in the 14th century. Chaucer (Canterbury
Tales) Whan that Aprille with his shoures
soote the drought of March hath perced to the
roote Whan Zephirus eek with his sweete breeth
inspired hath in every holt and heeth the
tendre croppes and smale foules maken
melodye that sleepen al the nyght with open
ie.
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In Modern English adjectives are invariable,
except in the system of comparison. COMPARISON
inflectional, periphrastic, irregular Inlectiona
l comparison comparative degree OE ra
(masc.), -re (fem.), -re (neut.), -ran (pl.)
weak declension (endings) ME r? gt NE ?
er OE heardra (N.sg.masc.) gt ME hardr(e, harder
gt NE harder h?d?
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superlative degree strong or weak
declension OE ost, -est gt ME ?st gt NE ?st
-est OE heardost gt ME hardest gt NE h?d?st
hardest
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PERIPHRASTIC COMPARISON competes with
inflectional comparison since ME comparative/su
perlative of much positive degree The
origin of more, most OE micel great comp.
mara, sup. m?st OE micle greatly, comp. ma,
sup. m?st OE ma gt ME mo, more gt NE m?
more OE m?st gt ME mest most gt NE m??st
most
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Shakespeare .to some more fitter place I
am more better than Prospero . in the calmest
and most stillest of the night most unkindest
cut of all present-day English inflectional
comparison all monosyllabic, disyllabic
adjectives in -er, -le, -ow, -y periphrastic
comparison disyllabic adjectives in ed, -ish,
-ful, -ing, -ive, -st, all adjectives longer
than two syllables
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• IRREGULAR COMPARISON
• good better the best
• god bet(e)ra be(t)st
• yfel wiersa wierst
• micel mara m?st
• lytel l?ssa l?st

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b) old older/elder - the oldest/eldest OE
eald , ald (Anglian) gt ME old gt NE ??ld
old OE ieldra, eldra gt ME eldr(e
gt NE eld? elder gt NE ??ld?
older (17th c.) OE ieldest, eldest gt
ME eldest gt NE eld?st eldest gt
NE ??ld?st oldest (17th c.) OE læt, lat- gt
ME lat gt NE le?t late OE lætra
gt ME latr(e gt NE læt? latter ME latr(e
gt NE le?t? later OE lætst gt ME
last gt NE l?st last ME latest gt
NE le?t?st latest
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OE neah gt ME neigh gt NE na? nigh OE
nearra gt ME nerre gt NE n?? near OE neahst
gt ME nehst gt NE nekst next OE forþ
(adverb) OE furþra gt ME furthr(e gt NE
f?ð? further ME furthest gt NE
f?ð?st furthest OE feorr (adverb) OE fierra
gt ME ferre, farre gt NE f?ð? farther OE
fierrest gt Me ferrest, farrest gt NE
f?ð?st farthest
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• ADVERBS
• according to form SIMPLE, DERIVED, PERIPHRASTIC
• SIMPLE now, then, here, there, well, hard,
  fast..
• origin
• OE simple adverbs nu, her, þ?r, wel.
• OE derived adverbs hearde, fæste, wide
• OE hearde gt ME harde gt NE h?d hard

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• DERIVED ADVERBS widely, strongly, hardly,
  eastward(s), clockwise
• origin
• OE adjective suffix lice
• OE noun soþ lic (adjectival suffix) e
  (adverbial suffix) gt soþ-lice
• OE lice gt ME li(ch(e gt NE -l? ly
• ME lich(e, -ly competes with (e)
• Shakespeare thou didst it excellent
• she will speak most bitterly and strange
• since 18th c. simple adverbs - exceptions

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double adverbial forms Peter works hard. Peter
hardly (ever) works. I hate arriving late. I
havent been to the theatre lately He can jump
very high. He is highly spoken of. Come
close. They are closely related. Take it
easy. This can be arranged easily.
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b) OE nouns/adverb weard OE weard in
direction of gt ME ward gt NE -ward(s) c) OE
nound wis e in the manner OE wise gt ME
wis(e gt NE wa?z PERIPHRASTIC ADVERBIALS
in a (adjective) manner/ way cf overboard,
uphill, downside, upstream.
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NUMERALS words representing numbers cardinal
quantity one, two, three ordinal sequential
order first, second, third ranking order of
relevance primary, secondary, tertiary partititit
ve division into fraction whole, half,
third composite composition unary, binary,
ternary multiplicative repetition once, twice,
thrice reproductive replication single,
double, triple collective sets pair, triad,
dozen distributive alternating patterns every
other, every third(singuli, bini, terni)
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OE cardinal OE ordinal 1 an forma 2 twa,
twegen oþer 3 þreo, þrie þirda, þridda 4
feower feorþa 5 fif fifta 6 siex siexta 7
seofon seofoþa 8 eahta eahtoþa 9
nigon nigoþa 10 tien teoþa 22 twegen and
twentig
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1 3 declined, gender distinction 4 - 19
not declined, but the ending e when used
alone fif menn - fife Ordinal
numerals cardinal oþa IE -to- gt Germ.
-þa- gt OE (o) þa gt ME th(e gt NE
? after voiceless fricatives dissimilation
of ? to t fifta Ealla gesceafta ..
God gesceop and geworhte on six dagum. And an
þ?m seofoþan dæ?e he ?eendode his weorc and
geswac þa and hie w?ron swiþe gode. (Ælfric)
Henry the Fift, Twelft Night (Shakespeare)
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Irregular ordinal numerals one (the)
first OE an gt ME on, w on, won gt NE wun, wun,
w?n one OE forma, foremest, ?rest, fyrsta OE
fyrsta gt ME first(e gt NE f?st first two
(the) second OE twa (fem., neut.) gt ME two gt
two? gt NE tu two OE twegen (masc.) gt ME
tweien gt NE twe?n twain
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OE oþer gt ME o?ther gt NE uther, uther gt ?ð?
other ME secounde gt NE sek?nd second three
(the )third OE þreo (fem., neut.) gt ME
thre gt NE ?ri three OE þrie gt ME thre?
gt NE ?ri three OE þridda, þirda gt ME
third(e gt NE ??d third five (the )
fifth OE fife gt ME fiv(e gt NE
fa?v five OE fifta gt ME fift(e gt NE
fift, fifth f?f?
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VERBS verbal categories person, tense, mood,
(voice?) PERSON - Who is the doer of the
action? I, you or somebody else AGENT gt
SUBJECT gt NOUN PHRASE and/or personal ending
61
OE present tense (indicative) singular plural
writ-e writ-aþ writ-est writ-eþ 1st person
loss of the ending e in ME OE (ic) write gt ME
writ(e gt NE ra?t write 2nd person loss of
the 2nd person singular loss of singular
reference in the 2nd person
62
3rd person singular OE (e)þ, -t (in contracted
forms) remains in ME, but gradually replaced
with es from the north OE (he) writeþ, writt gt
ME writeth, writt, writes OE es gt ME ?s,
?z gt NE ME (he?) writes gt NE ra?ts
writes
z
s
?z
63
plural OE aþ preserved as ME eth, but soon
replaced with en OE (hie) writaþ gt ME
writeth, writ(e(n gt NE ra?t write The
ending es the only personal ending preserved,
but even this one restricted to the present tense
and to the indicative mood. Why not in the past
tense? Why not in the subjunctive and the
imperative? Why not in modal verbs?
64
PERSONAL ENDINGS IN THE SUBJUNCTIVE OE present
subjunctive singular write OE present
subjuctive plural writen OE preterite
subjunctive singular write OE preterite
subjunctive plural writen PERSONAL
ENDINGS IN THE IMPERATIVE OE imperative
singular Writ! Lufe! OE imperative plural
Writaþ! Lufaþ!
65
PERSONAL ENDINGS IN MODAL VERBS OE cunnan
know present 1. cann 2. canst plural
cunnon 3. cann OE sculan be
obliged present 1. sceal 2. scealt plural
sculon 3. sceal
66
TENSE relation between the time when the
reported action occurred and the moment of
speaking
NOW
67
TENSE MANDATORY FORMAL ENCODING OF TEMPORAL
RELATIONS OLD ENGLISH two formal tenses
preterite and present (non-preterite)
NON-PRETERITE
PRETERITE
NOW
68

• OLD ENGLISH two formal tenses preterite and
  present
• PRESENT TENSE BASE FORM ( PERSONAL ENDINGS)
• PRETERITE TENSE the marking depended on the type
  of the verb
• 4 types of verbs
• STRONG VERBS
• WEAK VERBS
• PRETERITE-PRESENT VERBS
• ANOMALOUS VERBS

69
STRONG VERBS Indo-European vowel gradation
gradation (Ablaut) alteration of vowels in
the stems of related words or different
grammatical forms of the same word IE 2
gradation lines e-gradation, a-gradation
e-gradation potential grades e e /
o o e-grade present stem o-grade,
e-grade, o-grade, zero-grade perfect stem
70
present stem (e-grade) present tense
indicative, present tense subjuctive imperat
ive, infinitive, present
participle perfect stem (o-grade) 1st and 3rd
p.sg. preterite indicative perfect stem
(e/o/zero-grade) 2nd p. sg., plural preterite
indicative, preterite subjunctive perfect
stem (zero-grade) past participle
71
OE writ-an present indicative preterite
indicative 1 writ-e wrat 2 writ-est writ-e 3
writ-eþ wrat pl. writ-aþ writ-on pres. part.
writ-ende past part. ge-writ-en representative
forms infinitive, 1st/3rd sg preterite, plural
preterite, past participle writan, wrat,
writon, gewriten
72
OE writan lt Germanic u?rit- lt IE u?rei?t-
IE ei gt Germ. i gt OE i gt ME i gt
NE a? OE wrat lt Germanic u?rai?t- lt IE
u?roi?t- IE o gt Germ. a Germ. ai gt OE
a gt ME o gt NE ?? OE ge-writen lt Germanic
- u?rit- lt IE u?rit- IE / i ? i
gt OE i gt ME i gt NE ?

73
OE drincan lt Germanic drink- lt IE
drenk- IE e gt Germ. i /_ nasal OE dranc
lt Germanic drank - lt IE dronk- IE o gt
Germ. a gt OE a,o gt ME a gt NE æ OE
gedruncen lt Germanic -drunk- lt IE -drn?k-
IE / sonorant gt Germ un/um/ul/ur gt OE
u gt ME u gt NE ?

74
SEVEN CLASSES OF STRONG VERBS
class Infinitive 1/3 pret.sg Plural preterite Past participle
I writan wrat writon -writen write
II ceosan ceas curon -curen choose
III drincan dranc druncon -druncen drink
IV beran bær b?ron -boren bear
V sprecan spræc spr?con -sprecen speak
VI scacan scoc scocon -scacen shake
VII feallan feoll feollon -feallen fall
75
WEAK VERBS new Germanic formation only one
stem (present stem) tense encoded with the
dental sufifix
76
3 CLASSES OF WEAK VERBS Class 1 infinitive
ending an, preterite ending (e)de, pp
-(e)d Class 2 infinitive ending -ian, preterite
ending ode, pp ending od Class 3 habban,
libban, secgan, hycgan
77
3 CLASSES OF WEAK VERBS Class 1 infinitive
ending an, preterite ending (e)de, pp ending
-(e)d Class 2 infinitive ending -ian, preterite
ending ode, pp ending od Class 3 habban,
libban, secgan, hycgan class 1 class 2 class
3 inf. hieran lufian habban pret.
hier-de luf-ode hæfde pp. ge-hier(e)d ge-lufo
d ge-hæfd OE -ede, -ode gt ME ?d? gt NE
d, t, ?d played, worked, embedded
78
PRETERITE PRESENT VERBS one stem (perfect
stem) preterite tense dental suffix
STRONG WEAK PRETERITE PRESENT
PRESENT STEM
PERFECT STEM
DENTAL SUFFIX
79
PRETERITE- PRESENT VERBS present preterite mæg
mighte mægst mightest mæg mighte
magon mighton
80
ANOMALOUS VERBS beon/wesan, don, gan,
willan beon/ wesan, eom beo eart bis
t is biþ sindon beoþ wæs, w?ron, beon don
do, doþ, dydon gan pret. eode willan pret.
wolde.
81

• FROM OE TO NE
• the levelling of the singular and the plural form
  of strong verbs
• in northern dialects since the 14th
  century
• 2nd form (1st, 3rd sg) 3rd form (plural)
• OE writan wrat writon gewriten
• ME writen wrot (y)writen

82

• b) in NE the preterite form (occasionally)
  extended to past participle
• OE standan stod stodon gestanden
• NE stand stood stood
• in NE the past participle form (occasionally)
  extended to preterite
• OE stingan stang stungon gestungen
• NE sting stung stung
• The levelling still ongoing in non-standard
  varieties (dialects)

83

• NON-STANDARD DIALECTS
• the past participle used as the past tense form
• I see I seen (yesterday) I have seen
• the past tense form used as the past participle
• I go I went I have went
• the present tense form generalized
• I give I give I have give
• relict forms
• I write I writ I have writ

84

• the change of classes
• strong verbs turning weak ( regular) an
  ongoing process
• WEAK verbs turning irregular
• 1. keep - kept - kept ALTERATION OF LONG
  AND SHORT VOWEL
• OE cepan cepte ge-cept
• ME keepen kepte kept
• NE kip kept kept
• also hear-heard-heard
• meet met met
• bleed-bled-bled
• read-read-read

85

• set set - set ALL THREE FORMS THE SAME
• ME setten sett-(d)e (y) sett-(ed)
• NE set set set
• Also cast-cast-cast
• cut-cut-cut
• hit-hit-hit
• shut-shut-shut
• tell - told - told MUTATED PRESENTS
• OE tellan tealde (WS), talde (Ang) getald
• ME tellen tolde (y)told
• NE tell told told
• also teach-taught-taught, bring-brought-brought,
  think-thought-thought
• sell-sold-sold, seek-sought-sought etc.

86

• send - sent - sent DEVOICED DENTAL SUFFIX IN
  THE PRETERITE
• OE sendan sende gesend
• ME senden sente (y)sent
• NE send sent sent
• t replaced d in 12th-13th century, first if the
  stem ended in a sonorant d,
• later extended to stems ending in a sonorant
• spend-spent-spent, build-built-built,
  dream-dreamt-dreamt, feel-felt-felt,
• learn-learnt-learnt etc.
• ! went (from OE wendan)

87

• make - made - made SYNCOPATED PRETERITE AND
  P.P.
• OE macian macode gemacod
• ME maken ma(k)ede (y)ma(k)ed
• made mad
• NE me?k me?d me?d

88
PERIPHRASTIC TENSES OE PRESENT TENSE real
present, universal time, future reference Þa
flotmenn cumaþ and þe gebindaþ the pirates are
coming and they will fetter you OE PRETERITE
TENSE a single act in the past, a continuous
act in the past, present perfect, past
perfect þa þa menn slepon, þa com his feonda sum
when the men were sleeping, one of his
enemies came ic mid ealre heortan þe gewilnode
I have wished for you with all my heart
89

• PERIPHRASTIC TENSES COMMON IN OE, BUT THEIR USE
  NOT CONSISTENT WITH THEIR MODERN ENGLISH
  FUNCTIONS
• beon/wesan present participle ende
• þa wæs se cyning openlice andettende þæt he
  wolde fæstlice þ?m
• deofolgiendum wiþsacan then the king publicly
  acknowledged that he would resolutely renounce
  the idols
• present participle present stem ende (lt IE
  -nt-)
• Around 1200 the participle ende was replaced
  with the ing form, possibly under the influence
  of the construction
• been on verbal noun ing(e)
• From 16th century on, the use of expanded
  tenses spread from the north,
• since 18th century in the function of progressive
  tenses.

90
b) beon/wesan/habban past participle OE past
participle strong verbs ge perfect stem
(zero-grade) en OE ge-writ-en gt ME y-writ-en,
y-write, writ-en gt NE written weak verbs ge
present stem ed/od/d/t OE ge-luf-od gt ME
y-lov-ed, y-love, lov-ed gt NE loved In OE the
auxiliary habban was used with transitive,
beon/wesan with intransitive verbs, the meaning
of the construction not necessarily
perfective. In ME the auxiliary haven spread to
intransitive verbs, and the past participle lost
its adjectival properties. The use became
consistent with the function of perfect tenses
91
c) willan/sculan infinitive After the year
1200 shal to be obliged and will to want
lost some of their modal meaning and started to
be used for future time reference. 18th century
will volition in the 1st person, simple futurity
in the 2nd and 3rd shall obligation in the 2nd
and 3rd, simple futurity in the 1st person.
Infinitive (nomen actionis lt -ono-, inflected
in West Germanic in the Genitive and in the
Dative singular) OE uninflected (bare)
infinitive present stem an OE inflected
infinitive to present stem -enne/anne
(supine) ME to becomes a simple infinitive
marker, -enne/anne merges with an to en, which
subsequently disappeares. The supine function
rendered (for a while) with the for to
infinitive.
92
1 Whan that Aprille, with his shoures soote The
drought of March hath perced to the roote And
bathed every veyne in swich licour, Of which
vertu engendred is the flour 5 Whan Zephirus
eek with his sweete breeth Inspired hath in
every holt and heeth The tendre croppes, and the
yonge sonne Hath in the Ram his halfe cours
yronne, And smale foweles maken melodye, 10
That slepen al the nyght with open eye - (So
priketh hem Nature in her courages)
heath, heather fugol gt fowl eage gt eye rennen ran
runnen rinnan ræn -runnen (III)
93
Thanne longen folk to goon on pilgrimages And
palmeres for to seken straunge strondes To ferne
halwes, kowthe in sondry londes 15 And
specially from every shires ende Of Engelond, to
Caunterbury they wende, The hooly blisful martir
for to seke That hem hath holpen, whan that they
were seeke.         
cuþ gt couth gt couth, uncouth
94
Bifil that in that sesoun, on a day, 20 In
Southwerk at the Tabard as I lay Redy to wenden
on my pilgrymage To Caunterbury with ful devout
courage, At nyght were come into that hostelrye
Wel nyne and twenty in a compaignye 25 Of
sondry folk, by aventure yfalle In felaweshipe,
and pilgrimes were they alle, That toward
Caunterbury wolden ryde. befallen - impersonal
verb (befallen, befel/befil, befallen (VII) cumen
cam, cam cumen cuman com comon cumen
(IV)
95
THE MOOD OE indicative, imperative,
subjunctive imperative singular base form (SV)
or base e/a (WV) imperative plural same as
present indicative plural Lufe þin neahstan! Nim
sume ti?ele! Byc?aþ eow ele! subjunctive
singular present stem e perfect stem e
subjuntive plural present stem
en perfect stem en
96

• The use of subjunctive in OE
• in independent sentences wish or command
• God sie þe milde!
• Ne he ealu ne drince oþþe win!
• in dependent clauses after verbs of desire,
  command, purpose, potentiality, hypothetical
  comparison, concession
• Geongum mannum gedafenaþ þæt hie leornien sumne
  wisdom.
• Ic wilnode þæt þu! ham w?re
• In ME both subjunctive endings were lost. The
  only distinctive preterite subjunctive form left
  is were.
• The use of modal auxiliaries spread in ME and NE.

97
Modal Verbs can, could OE cunnan know cann
canst cann pl. cunnon pret. cuþe p.p.
cuþ OE cann gt ME can gt NE kæn OE cuþe gt
ME cude gt NE could (remodelled after would,
should)
98
may, might OE magan to be able mæg meaht,
miht mæg pl. magon pret. meahte, mehte, mihte p.
p. meaht, miht OE mæg gt ME mai gt NE me?
may OE mihte gt ME mihte gt NE ma?t might
99
must OE to be allowed to mot most mot pl.
moton pret. moste OE moste gt ME mo?ste gt NE
must, must gt m?st must ! mustnt obliged to
not do sth ltnot to be allowed to
100
shall, should OE sculan to be
obliged sceal scealt sceal pl. sculon pret.
scolde OE sceal gt ME shal, shaul gt NE
?æl OE scolde gt sho?lde gt NE ??d should
shant gt shalnt lt shall not
101
wiil, would OE willan want wille wilt wille
pl. willaþ pret. wolde OE wolde gt ME wo?lde gt
NE wuld, owu(l)d w?d NE wont lt woll not lt ME
wolle new formation, variant of wille
102
ought OE agan have, owe ag/ah ahst ag/ah pl.
agon pret. ahte OE ag gt ME ow gt NE ?? owe lt
have the obligation/grudge OE ahte gt ME oughte
gt NE ?t ought (monophthongized before
ht) Shakespeare You ought him a thousand
pounds. own backformaion of owner or lt p.p.
own lt agen 17th c.