Submitted by ,

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BIOLOGY ASSIGNMENT
Submitted by , ANNAT VARGHESE
Class-9th A Roll No
9103 School K.V.M-No 1
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CONTENTS

• KINGDOM ANIMALIA
• PORIFERA
• CNIDARIA
• PLATYHELMINTHES
• NEMATODA
• ANNELIDA
• ARTHROPODA
• MOLLUSCA
• ECHINODERMATA
• PROTOCHORDATA
• VERTEBRATA

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KINGDOM ANIMALIA

• The Animal Kingdom is at once the Kingdom most
  and least familiar to us. Almost all of the
  animals we commonly think of -- mammals, fish,
  and birds -- belong to a single subgroup within
  one of the 33 Phyla comprising the Animal
  Kingdom. On the other hand, over 100,000 species
  in some 25 animal phyla -- mostly small worms --
  are so unfamiliar that they are virtually unknown
  to non-scientists. The same goes for several
  hundred thousand tiny insect-like species
  populating the Arthropoda phylum.

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All told, around 800,000 species have been
identified in the Animal Kingdom -- most of them
in the Arthropod phylum. In fact, some scientists
believe that if we were to identify all species
in the tropical rain forests the ranks of
Arthropoda would swell to over 10 million
species!
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PHYLUM PORIFERA

• Poriferans are commonly referred to as sponges.
  An early branching event in the history of
  animals separated the sponges from other
  metazoans. As one would expect based on their
  phylogenetic position, fossil sponges are among
  the oldest known animal fossils, dating from the
  Late Precambrian. Since then, sponges have been
  conspicuous members of many fossil communities
  the number of described fossil genera exceeds
  900.

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The approximately 5,000 living sponge species are
classified in the phylum Porifera, which is
composed of three distinct groups, the
Hexactinellida (glass sponges), the Demospongia,
and the Calcarea (calcareous sponges).
Sponges are characterized by the possession of a
feeding system unique among animals. Poriferans
don't have mouths instead, they have tiny pores
in their outer walls through which water is
drawn.
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Cells in the sponge walls filter goodies from the
water as the water is pumped through the body and
out other larger openings. The flow of water
through the sponge is unidirectional, driven by
the beating of flagella which line the surface of
chambers connected by a series of canals . Sponge
cells perform a variety of bodily functions and
appear to be more independent of each other than
are the cells of other animals.
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PHYLUM PORIFERA
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PHYLUM CNIDARIA

• Cnidari is a phylum containing some 11,000
  species of apparently simple animals found
  exclusively in aquatic, mostly marine,
  environments. On the other hand, their
  biochemistry and genetic makeup reveal that even
  the stationary starlet sea anemone is much more
  complex than it appears at the first glance.

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Cnidarians get their name from cnidocytes, which
are specialized cells that carry stinging
organelles called cnidocysts. As for the
etymology, the word Cnidaria comes from the Greek
word "cnidos", which means "stinging needle". The
corals, which are important reef-builders, belong
here, as do the familiar sea anemones, jellyfish,
sea pens, sea pansies and sea wasps. The name
Coelenterata was formerly applied to the group,
but as this name included the Ctenophores, it has
been abandoned. Cnidarians are highly evident in
the fossil records, having first appeared in the
Ediacaran period.
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The basic body shape of a cnidarian consists of a
sac containing a gastrovascular cavity with a
single opening that functions as both mouth and
anus . It has radial symmetry, meaning that
whichever way it is cut along its central axis,
the resulting halves would always be mirror
images of each other. Their movement is
coordinated by a decentralized nerve net and
simple receptors. Several free-swimming Cubozoa
and Scyphozoa possess rhopalia, complex sensory
structures that can include image-forming eyes
with lenses and retinas , and a gravity-sensing
statolith comparable in function to the otolith
of the vertebrate inner ear. Tentacles
surrounding the mouth contain nematocysts,
specialized stinging cells, which they use to
catch prey and defend themselves from predators.
The ability to sting is what gives cnidarians
their name.
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• There are four main classes of Cnidaria
• Class Anthozoa (anemones, corals, etc.)
• Class Scyphozoa (jellyfish)
• Class Cubozoa (box jellies)
• Class Hydrozoa (Obelia, Aequorea, Portuguese Man
  o' War, etc.)
• Traditionally the hydrozoans were considered to
  be the most primitive, but evidence now suggests
  the anthozoans were actually the earliest to
  diverge. Sea anemones, sea fans and corals are in
  this class. The non-anthozoan classes may be
  grouped into the subphylum Medusozoa. Under this
  scheme, Anthozoa is also elevated to a subphylum.
• Theoretically, members of Cnidaria have
  life-cycles that alternate between asexual polyps
  and sexual, free-swimming forms called medusae.
  In reality there is a vast variation within the
  life-cycles of cnidarians.

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PHYLUM CNIDARIA
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PHYLUM PLATYHELMITHES

• The flatworms (Phylum Platyhelminthes from the
  Greek platy, meaning "flat" and helminth, meaning
  worm) are a phylum of relatively simple
  soft-bodied invertebrate animals. With about
  25,000 known species they are the largest phylum
  of acoelomates. Flatworms are found in marine,
  freshwater, and even damp terrestrial
  environments. A troublesome terrestrial example
  is the New Zealand flatworm, Arthurdendyus
  triangulatus, which rapidly colonized large areas
  of Ireland and Scotland since its unintentional
  introduction in the 1960s and has since destroyed
  most of the indigenous earthworms.

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Most flatworms are free-living, but many are
parasitic. There are four classes Trematoda
(flukes), Cestoda (tapeworms), Monogenea, and
Turbellaria.
PHYLUM PLATYHELMINTHES
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PHYLUM NEMATODA

• Nematodes are the most speciose phylum after the
  arthropods, they occur in nearly every habitat
  including as parasites in all sorts of plants and
  animals, (they don't like dry places however).
  One species is known that can live in old vinegar
  (Turbatrix aceti)and another that as only been
  found in German beer mats. Though only about 80
  000 species have been described some scientists
  estimate there may be as many as a million
  species all told. They can occur in very dense
  numbers in the soil and rotting vegetation, as
  many as 90 000 have been found in a single
  rotting apple, while millions occur in the top
  3cm (1 inch) of a square metre of good quality
  soil.

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While there are a huge number of free living
Nematodes there are also a large number of
parasitic species, many of which cause diseases
to man and other animals as well as to plants,
nearly every living organism has been found to be
parasitised by one species of nematode or
another.
Most nematodes are reasonably small, they range
in size from 100 micrometres in length (1/10th of
a mm or 1/250th of an in) to the female Giant
Nematode Dioctophyme renale which may be up to 1
metre, or 3 ft long . Free living nematodes are
long thin worms with transparent and typically
curled bodies, parasitic species have a variety
of less streamline shapes relating to their
degenerate parasitic life styles, one unifying
characteristic that makes the phylum unique is
the lack of cilia or flagella, even the sperm of
nematodes are amoeboid.
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Nematodes as parasites have been known for a long
time and the earliest recorded literary mention
of them is an Egyptian papyrus from 1500 BC, they
are also mentioned by the ancient Greeks
Aristotle and Hippocratis the father of
scientific medicine.
PHYLUM NEMATODA
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PHYLUM ANNELIDA

• The annelid worms are thought to have evolved
  from a primitive coelomate worm-like ancestor
  which developed metameric segmentation. The
  development of a coelom conferred many
  advantages, including acting as a hydrostatic
  means of locomotion.
• However, in the ancestral coelomate the force of
  muscle contractions in one area was carried
  throughout the body and so precise control of
  body movements was not possible

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The phylum Annelida is divided into 3 classes
Polychaeta bristleworms, mainly marine
Oligochaeta earthworms, mainly terrestrial and
freshwater Hirudinea leeches, mainly
freshwater but with marine and terrestrial
speciesOf these, the polychaetes are thought to
be closest to the ancestral form, (although, as
we shall see, some of the polychaetes are highly
specialised).
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PHYLUM ANNELIDA
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PHYLUM ARTHROPODA

• By nearly any measure, the most successful
  animals on the planet are the arthropods. They
  have conquered land, sea and air, and make up
  over three-fourths of all currently known living
  and fossil organisms, or over one million species
  in all. Since many arthropod species remain
  undocumented or undiscovered, especially in
  tropical rain forests, the true number of living
  arthropod species is probably in the tens of
  millions. One recent conservative estimate puts
  the number of arthropod species in tropical
  forests at 6 to 9 million species (Thomas, 1990).

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Arthropods range in distribution from the deep
sea to mountain peaks, in size from the king crab
with its 12-foot armspan to microscopic insects
and crustaceans, and in taste from chocolate
covered ants to crawfish jambalaya and lobster
Newburg. Despite this unbelievable diversity, the
basic body plan of arthropods is fairly constant.
Arthropods have a stiff cuticle made largely of
chitin and proteins, forming an exoskeleton that
may or may not be further stiffened with calcium
carbonate. They have segmented bodies and show
various patterns of segment fusion (tagmosis) to
form integrated units (heads, abdomens, and so
on). The phylum takes its name from its
distinctive jointed appendages, which may be
modified in a number of ways to form antennae,
mouthparts, and reproductive organs.
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PHYLUM ARTHROPODA
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PHYLUM MOLLUSCA

• The molluscs (British spelling) or mollusks
  (American spelling) are members of the very large
  and diverse phylum Mollusca. Molluscs include a
  wide variety of animals such as clams and snails,
  squid and octopus, which are well-known and
  valued by humans either as seafood or for their
  decorative shells. Molluscs live in a wide
  variety of habitats, in the oceans, on land and
  in freshwater.
• There are some 112,000 species within this
  phylum. The scientific study of molluscs is
  called malacology.

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Molluscs range from minute snails and clams to
larger organisms such as squid, cuttlefish and
octopus, which are among the most
neurologically-advanced invertebrates. The vast
majority of molluscs live in marine environments,
and are found intertidally, in the shallow
subtidal and on the continental shelf, although
some species do live in the abyssal depths of the
oceans around hot vents. Not all mollusks are
marine two taxomonic groups or classes, the
bivalves and the gastropods, also contain
freshwater species. Only the gastropods have
representatives that live on land the land
snails and slugs.
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PHYLUM MOLLUSCA
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PHYLUM ECHINODERMATA

• Echinoderms are a phylum of marine animals found
  at all ocean depths. The phylum appeared near the
  start of the Cambrian period, and contains about
  7,000 living species, making it the second
  largest grouping of deuterostomes, after the
  chordates they are the largest phylum without
  freshwater or terrestrial representatives.

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The Echinoderms are important both biologically
and geologically biologically because few other
groupings are so abundant in the biotic desert of
the deep sea, as well as the shallower oceans,
and geologically as their ossified skeletons are
major contributors to many limestone formations,
and can provide valuable clues as to the
geological environment. Further, it is held by
some that the radiation of echinoderms was
responsible for the Mesozoic revolution of marine
life.
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Two main subdivisions of Echinoderms are
traditionally recognised the more familiar,
motile Eleutherozoa, which encompasses the
Asteroidea (starfish), Ophiuroidea (brittle
stars), Echinoidea (sea urchin and sand dollar)
and Holothuroidea (sea cucumbers) and the
sessile Pelmatazoa, which consist of the
crinoids. Some crinoids, the feather stars, have
secondarily re-evolved a free-living lifestyle. A
fifth class of Eleutherozoa consisting of just
two species, the Concentricycloidea (sea
daisies), were recentlycitation needed merged
into the Asteroidea. The fossil record contains a
host of other classes which do not appear to fall
into any extant crown group.
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PHYLUM ECHINODERMATA
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PHYLUM PROTOCHORDATA

• The Protochordata is the animal phylum with which
  everyone is most intimately familiar, since it
  includes humans and other vertebrates. However,
  not all chordates are vertebrates.
• All chordates have the following features at some
  point in their life (in the case of humans and
  many other vertebrates, these features may only
  be present in the embryo)

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1. pharyngeal slits - a series of openings that
   connect the inside of the throat to the outside
   of the "neck". These are often, but not always,
   used as gills.
2. dorsal nerve cord - a bundle of nerve fibers
   which runs down the "back". It connects the brain
   with the lateral muscles and other organs.
3. notochord - cartilaginous rod running underneath,
   and supporting, the nerve cord.
4. post-anal tail - an extension of the body past
   the anal opening.

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PHYLUM PROTOCHORDATA
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PHYLUM VERTEBRATA

• Vertebrates are by far the most adaptable and
  successful of all the creatures on Earth. They
  have and do live in the most diverse climates,
  from the blistering heat of the parched desert to
  the frigid cold of the Arctic icepack, from the
  highest mountain peaks to the black, crushing
  depths of the ocean trenches.

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• This phylum is where most of my favorite animals
  are the bottle-nose dolphin, the St. Bernard,
  the barn owl, the Western diamond-back
  rattlesnake, and the whale shark. I'm also kind
  of partial to the human animal, as well.
• Classes found in this phylum
• Aves the birds
• Mammalia the mammals
• Reptilia the reptiles
• Amphibia the amphibians
• Pisces the fish

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PHYLUM VERTEBRATA
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PISCES

• Almost three-fourth's of the world's surface is
  covered in water. This water is home to over
  20,000 different species of fish. The earliest
  fossils of fish date back over 400 million years.
• Most fish breathe through gills. Gills perform
  the gas exchange between the water and the fish's
  blood. They allow the fish to breathe oxygen in
  the water.

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Fishes are vertebrates that have a skeleton made
of either bone or cartilage. About 95 of fishes
have skeletons made of bone. These bony fishes
have a swim bladder, a gas-filled sac, that they
can inflate or deflate allowing them to float in
the water even when not swimming. Fishes with a
cartilage skeleton tend to be heavier than water
and sink. They must swim to keep afloat.
Cartilaginous (cartilage) fish include the ray
and the shark.
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Most fish swim using a tail fin. Muscles in the
tail fin move it from side to side, forcing water
backward, and propeling the fish forward. Other
fins help the fish change direction and stop.
Pectoral fins on their side help them swim up and
down. Dorsal and anal fins on the top and bottom
keep the fish upright. Pelvic fins on the
underside help steer left and right.
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AMPHIBIA

• Amphibians are a taxon of animals that include
  all living tetrapods (four-legged vertebrates)
  that do not have amniotic eggs, are ectothermic
  (term for the animals whose body heat is
  regulated by the external environment previously
  known as cold-blooded), and generally spend part
  of their time on land. Most amphibians do not
  have the adaptations to an entirely terrestrial
  existence found in most other modern tetrapods
  (amniotes).

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• There are around 6,000 described, living species
  of amphibians. The study of amphibians and
  reptiles is known as herpetology. Amphibians are
  able to breathe through their skin.

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REPTILIA

• Reptiles, like fish and amphibians, can't
  regulate their internal temperatures the way
  birds and mammals can. Land vertebrate muscle
  needs warmth to function properly. So, reptiles
  will bask in the sun to get their bodies up to
  the proper temperature so they can go out looking
  for food. Most of the squamates (snakes and
  lizards) are carnivorous or insectivorous, but
  most of the chelonids (turtles) are herbivores,
  preferring to graze on grass or kelp.

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PHYLUM REPTILIA
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AVES

• Birds are actually the only living relatives of
  the dinosaurs! They're warm-blooded reptiles
  whose scales have been adapted into feathers and
  whose bones have gotten stronger and lighter.
  Birds come in all shapes and sizes, from the tiny
  shrike seen above to the huge, flightless
  ostrich. The class Aves includes two of my
  favorite animals, the barn owl and the crow.

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PHYLUM AVES
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MAMMALIA

• All mammals share at least three characteristics
  not found in other animals middle ear bones,
  hair, and the production of milk by modified
  sweat glands called mammary glands. The three
  middle ear bones, the malleus, incus, and stapes
  (more commonly referred to as the hammer, anvil,
  and stirrup) function in the transmission of
  vibrations from the tympanic membrane (eardrum)
  to the inner ear. The malleus and incus are
  derived from bones present in the lower jaw of
  mammalian ancestors.

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• Mammalian hair is present in all mammals at some
  point in their development. Hair has several
  functions, including insulation, color
  patterning, and aiding in the sense of touch. All
  female mammals produce milk from their mammary
  glands in order to nourish newborn offspring.
  Thus, female mammals invest a great deal of
  energy caring for each of their offspring, a
  situation which has important ramifications in
  many aspects of mammalian evolution, ecology, and
  behavior .
• Although mammals share several features in common
  (see Physical Description and Systematics and
  Taxonomic History), Mammalia contains a vast
  diversity of forms. The smallest mammals are
  found among the shrews and bats, and can weigh as
  little as 3 grams. The largest mammal, and indeed
  the largest animal to ever inhabit the planet, is
  the blue whale, which can weigh 160 metric tons
  (160,000 kg).

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• Thus, there is a 53 million-fold difference in
  mass between the largest and smallest mammals!
  Mammals have evolved to exploit a large variety
  of ecological niches and life history strategies
  and, in concert, have evolved numerous
  adaptations to take advantage of different
  lifestyles.
• For example, mammals that fly, glide, swim, run,
  burrow, or jump have evolved morphologies that
  allow them to locomote efficiently mammals have
  evolved a wide variety of forms to perform a wide
  variety of functions.

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PHYLUM MAMMALIA
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