The Big One

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The Big One
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Analysing Moving Image Texts 'Film Language'

• Reniermedia.wordpress.com

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SIGNS, CODES and CONVENTIONS

• Denotation, denotes, denoting connotation,
  connotes, connoting iconic, iconicity index,
  indexical, indexicality symbol, symbolic,
  symbolism...

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MISE-EN-SCÈNE

• (meez-ahn-sen)

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What is it? (I)

• Physical creation and an emotional concept
• Literally means staging or putting on an action
  or a scene in the theater or cinema
• Filmmakers control of what the audience sees and
  hears within the frame of the movie image

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What is it? (II)

• What is put before the camera and How it is
  photographed
• Thus, a total arrangement of
• Settings
• Costumes
• Lighting
• Sound
• Acting

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Usage

• Umbrella term for explaining how all the formal
  elements of cinema contribute to your
  interpretation of a films meaning.

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Mise-en-Scène

• French phrase used to describe the staging of a
  play
• In filmcomposing a shot or a sequence with the
  same attention to detail (set, lighting,
  costumes, makeup, positioning of actors within
  the frame, etc) that a state director lavishes on
  a play
• A form of framingthe art of composing a shot
• http//www.mediaed.org.uk/posted_documents/Teachin
  g_mise_en_scene.htm

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Framing

• Framestrip of celluloid on which the image is
  captured
• Shots can be framed
• In terms of horizontal, vertical and diagonal
  lines
• Geometrically
• Iconographically
• In deep or shallow focus
• From a high or low angle
• In a frame that has been masked or doubled

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Framing

• Tight framing
• Subject appears to be confined withing the
  horizontal and vertical borders of the frame
• Not a hint of offscreen space
• Gives a feeling of oppression
• Canted shotframe looks lopsided
• Geometrical compositions can be symbolic as well
  as visually interesting

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Iconography

• Framing a shot to imitate a painting or sculpture

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Focus

• Deep Focus
• foreground, middle ground and background are
  equally visible
• Conveys a greater sense of depth
• Minimizes the need to cut from one shot to
  another
• Brings out meanings that otherwise not be
  apparent
• Shallow Focus
• Foreground is more distinct than background

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Colour Lighting

• Colour palettes and lighting sets tone and mood
• Lighting has a direct bearing on the way an image
  is perceived

http//www.fis.ie/
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Lighting meaning

• Lighting can create atmosphere and mood as well
  as signify meaning, e.g. in a horror movie, light
  and shade are important codes of meaning.
• High-key lighting is harsh soft-key lighting
  creates a romantic atmosphere, spotlighting picks
  out a character from a group, etc.

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EDITING

• Some important edits are called continuity (or
  'Hollywood') edits MTV ('music television')
  edits cross-cuts follow-cuts match-cuts jump
  cuts eye-line matches dissolves fades
  montages bridging flashbacks...

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SHOT TYPES

• Establishing shot / long-shot / mid-shot /
  close-up / point-of view shot / soft-focus...

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Semiotics

• Semiotics is the name given to the study of the
  way by which meaning is created in the world,
  especially in the mass media. It is based upon
  the Idea of 'signs' and 'codes', 'denotation' and
  'connotation'. A sign is the basic unit of
  meaning in semiotics. A sign is any individual
  thing that signifies meaning for example, your
• clothes are a group of 'fashion signs' which
  signify meaning (perhaps you are trying to look
  'cool'?)

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Denotation/ connotation

• There are two ways that signs create meaning all
  signs have a literal meaning, which is called
  their denotation but, depending on the context,
  many signs also suggest other 'layers' of
  meaning, which is called their connotation. For
  example, an image of a girl dressed all in white
  denotes just that, I.e. this is what you 'see'
  but it may also connote innocence or purity (and
  all that this means in our society and culture),
  i.e. this is what you 'think'. Connotation,
  therefore, is always more than the denotation.

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Signs - codes

• Signs rarely work alone. They are most often
  combined with other signs to form a code. A code
  is a group of signs that we recognise as going
  'naturally together' to signify meaning (e.g. a
  rose is a sign but
• being handed to a girl by a boy could create a
  'romance code' and suggest love). Film and TV
  codes are often called technical codes because
  technical equipment is used to create them. There
  are three ways through which codes and signs can
  signify meaning

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Iconicity

• Iconicity an iconic sign or code looks just like
  the thing it seems to represent, e.g. an image of
  a cowboy seems to be just that but it is called
  iconic because it suggests far more than it
  should for example, our culture tends to
  associate extra meanings with the idea of
  'cowboy', such as toughness, heroism,
  masculinity, etc. Iconic signs are never reality
  they are a representation of reality.

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Indexicality

• Indexicality (an indexical sign or code) in a
  sign directly suggests meaning because what it
  shows seems to be the result of something we
  associate with the thing it represents, e.g.
  smoke suggests fire, sweat suggests exercise,
  appearance can suggest wealth, etc. This can be a
  short-cut way for a film director to create
  meaning.

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Symbolism

• Symbolism (a symbolic sign or code) suggests
  meaning because we have learned this meaning in
  our culture a symbol, in itself, has no
  association with what it means, e.g. a red heart
  shape suggests love letters combine to make
  words, etc.

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Meaning culturally determined

• The meaning we gain from codes is said to be
  culturally determined which means that our
  culture 'taught' us that particular way to
  interpret the meaning. For example, when we see
  the UK national flag, the Union Jack, we see more
  than what it simply denotes - a piece of coloured
  cloth patriotism and pride, etc.

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Enigma code

• An important code is an enigma code. These codes
  put a fascinating question in the mind of the
  audience that only watching the movie will
  answer. They tempt the audience to watch and are
  often used in trailers.

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Conventions

• A convention is simply a way of doing something
  that we are so used to we usually fail to notice
  it conventions can seem 'perfectly natural' or
  'realistic' yet are anything but. So women in
  cowboys tend conventionally to be either 'very
  good' or 'very bad' - and this seems 'normal'
  within the genre of cowboy movies the wheels of
  a car always screech guns always kill outright
  a punch always knocks a person out cold. Genre
  and narrative are important media conventions
  that are covered later, as are editing techniques
  and-the use of certain shot types (such as an
  establishing shot sequence or montage - see
  later).

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Effects, meaning , purpose

• Cinema and TV codes are created within an area
  bounded by the edges of a screen. By controlling
  what objects and action are in this frame, a film
  director creates what is called a mise-en-scene.
  Asking questions such as 'who, what and where' of
  the characters and objects and their relative
  positions, expressions, appearance, costume,
  make-up, scenery, props, lighting, sounds, etc.
  in a mise-en-scene will help you analyse it. Try
  to consider what effects are created in a
  mise-en-scene', what meaning they have (their
  denotation and, most importantly, connotation),
  how they have been created and why they were
  created (which will be the director's purpose -
  perhaps to develop a character, a mood, the
  storyline or plot and sometimes to explore a
  deeper meaning or idea, i.e. a theme).

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Editing

• Editing is the placing of separate shots
  together. This allows a director to manipulate
  space and time hundreds of miles or weeks of
  time can be reduced to a few scenes that appear
  perfectly natural and believable to the audience.
  
• A montage is a most important editing technique.
  It is a series of shots that are edited together
  to create a kind of ' individual unit' of meaning.

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Continuity edits

• Continuity edits - especially matched cuts - are
  called 'Hollywood editing'. This creates a
  sequence that seems to flow naturally on from the
  previous one, and in which the edits are
  'invisible'. These have the effect of creating a
  realistic and seamless flow to a story or
  narrative (see below) where one event leads
  naturally onto the next.
• Jump-cuts are dramatic edits
• MTV edits are rapid sequences of fast jump cuts
  used to create a conscious effect as used first
  in pop-videos
• cross-cuts follow different actions such as two
  people talking
• follow-cuts follow an action to its consequence,
  e.g. a character looking edits to what they look
  at
• eye-line matches are a kind of follow cut).
• A sound-bridge is a sound edit that allows sound
  from one shot to cross into the next to create
  continuity.

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The Shot

• Types
• Close-up
• Extreme Close-up
• Long Shot
• Full Shot
• Extreme Long Shot
• Medium Shot
• Establishing Shot
• Two-shot, Three-Shot
• Shot/Reverse Shot
• Over-the-shoulder shot

• Defined in terms of distance, area or the
  subjects they contain

http//www.fis.ie/
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Shots
http//www.fis.ie/
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The Shot

• High-angle Shot
• Gods Eye
• Suggest entrapment or frustration
• Low-Angle shot
• Makes subject appear larger
• Suggests dominance or power
• Objective-view of camera
• Point of View Shot

http//www.fis.ie/
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The Moving Shot

• Pan shothorizontal
• Tilt shotvertical
• Mobile Camera shots
• Swish panunusually rapid produces momentary
  blur
• Tracking Shotgreater area and more detail
• Dolly Shot
• Crane Shot

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The Moving Shot
http//www.fis.ie/
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Shots and meaning

• An establishing shot is usually the opening shot
  of a sequence it 'sets the scene' and locates
  the action. It is often followed by a
• mid-shot followed by a
• close-up shot.
• A subjective point-of-view shot (POV) is at
  eye-level and appears as if you are viewing the
  scene from the character's perspective (as in
  'Blair Witch').
• An objective point-of-view shot acts as if you
  are an observer secretly looking into a scene.

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Camera moves, lighting etc

• CAMERA ANGLE Eye-line match / high / low
• CAMERA MOVEMENT Zooming / tracking / panning /
  hand-held / etc
• LIGHTING
• High key, neutral, low key

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More vocabulary

• 'DIEGESIS' AND SOUND
• VISUAL EFFECTS / SFX
• NARRATIVE
• GENRE
• ICONOGRAPHY
• THE 'STAR SYSTEM'

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REALISM

• 'Verisimilitude'
• 'Generic verisimilitude'
• 'Cultural verisimilitude'

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Film process

• The Shot
• The Scene vs. The Sequence
• Appear to be virtually synonymous
• Chief differencethere can be scenes within a
  sequence, but not sequences within scenes

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Camera angles meaning

• Camera angles can signify meaning, e.g. a
  subjective POV high angle shot can crate a
  superior feel.

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Camera Movements
http//www.fis.ie/
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180 degree rule

• Shot reverse shot

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camera movements meaning

• Different camera movements can create significant
  meaning - a zoom into a close-up of a face can
  create emotion, a pan across a war scene can
  suggest violence POV tracking shots and POV
  hand-held camera shot can create tension and
  involvement by making you feel as if you are a
  part of the action.

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The Sequence

• A group of shots forming a self-contained segment
  of the film that is, by and large, intelligible
  in itself
• Types
• Linear Sequence
• Associative Sequence
• Montage Sequence

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The Linear Sequence

• Beginning initiates the action
• Middle adds to the action
• End follows and completes the action
• Elliptical linear sequence
• Certain details omitted
• Viewers must make connections

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The Associative Sequence

• Scenes linked by an object or a series of objects
• http//mcel.pacificu.edu/JAHC/JAHCV2/ARTICLES/davi
  d/david.html

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Montage Sequence

• A series of shots arranged in a particular order
  for a particular purpose
• Rapid succession telescoping an event or several
  events
• American Montage 30s 40s
• Collapses time as shots blend together, wipe each
  other away or are superimposed
• Calendar pages, headlines, etc.

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Montage Sequence

• Feature of both linear and associative sequence
• Can be unified by images
• http//www.vsmu.sk/rybarova/unit_7.doc

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Cuts

• Verbterminate a shot
• Nouna strip of film
• Film stages rough cut ? directors cut ? final
  cut

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Cuts

• Joining of two separate shots
• Straight cutone image replaces another
• Contrast cutimages are dissimilar
• Crosscut (Parallel)2 actions occurring
  simultaneously
• Jump cutbreak in continuity
• Form cuta cut from one object to another of
  similar shape
• Match cutone shot complements or matches the
  other, following smoothly without any break in
  continuity of time and space

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TransitionsBridge Scenes

• The Fade
• Fade-out Fade-in
• Denotes demarcationthe end of a narrative
  sequence
• The Dissolve
• denotes continuity by the gradual replacement of
  one shot by another
• No sooner said than done

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Transitions

• Synecdoche or metonymy
• Two images blend in such a way that their union
  constitutes a symbolic equation
• However, the result is a metaphorical dissolve
• A sign replaces the signified
• http//afronord.tripod.com/theory.html

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Transitions

• Form Dissolvemerging two images with the same
  shape or contours
• Easy on the eyes
• Can relate to plot
• The WipeLine traveling vertically across the
  scene
• More fluid than a cut and faster than a dissolve
• Ideal for presenting a series of events in quick
  succession

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The Iris

• Masking Shot or Iris Shoteverything blacked out
  except what is to be seen telescopically
• Irising In/Irising Out

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Editing

• Selecting and arranging the shots based on
• Their place within the narrative
• Their contribution to the mood of a particular
  scene or to the film as a whole
• Their enhancement of the films rhythm
• their elucidation of the films deeper meaning
• their fulfillment of the filmmakers purpose

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Continuity Editing

• Assembling shots so that they follow each other
  smoothly without interruption
• Preserves the illusion of an ongoing narrative

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Eisensteins Theory of Montage

• Based on contrast and conflict
• http//www.sensesofcinema.com/contents/directors/0
  4/eisenstein.html
• http//afronord.tripod.com/afronord/eisen.html

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Continuity Editing

• Rhythmvariations in speed, movement, and pace
• Timeparallel cutting depicts two concurrent
  actions
• Spaceparallel cutting affects sense of space as
  well
• Toneprimarily light, shade and color
• Themejuxtaposing contrasting shots can deepen a
  films theme

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Role of the Editor

• Takes what has been shot and improves on it
• The directors alter ego
• Controls the rhythm and tone
• Primary purpose is to bring to completion an
  artistic work already in progress

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non-linear editing
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Takes

• Long take
• A shot that lasts more than a minute
• Steadicam

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Diegesis, sound. esp.

• Diegesis means the 'world of the film' if
  something seems to be a part of the 'world of the
  film', it is called 'diegetic'. So, sound that is
  a part of the action is diegetic sound, e.g. wind
  noise, screeching cars, etc but sound that is
  added to create, most often, mood or atmosphere
  is called
• non-diegetic sound. Diegetic sounds may also be
  added in after filming, or may be exaggerated for
  effect (e.g. loud footsteps).

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Soundbridge/ Overlapping Sound

• Sound or dialogue that either carries over from
  one scene to the next or anticipates the new
  scene
• Can build narrative
• http//imv.au.dk/pba/Homepagematerial/MMproduktio
  nmateriale/Raskin20Sound2020Paper.pdf

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Example Malcolm X

• Malcolm walks along a street thronged with
  prostitutes, we hear the words What has happened
  to our women? Is this what Malcolm is thinking?
  The next scene clarifies the situation The
  question is part of a sermon that is about to
  end. The incident in the 1st scene inspired the
  subject matter of the sermon in the 2nd, with the
  question becoming the link between them.

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Sound Overview

• http//imv.au.dk/pba/Homepagematerial/MMproduktio
  nmateriale/Raskin20Sound2020Paper.pdf

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Musical Associations

• Music has 2 main functions
• Advances narrative
• plot device
• not subtextual
• Enhances narrative
• functions as subtext
• Deepens the narrative by bringing it to another
  level of interpretation

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Music

• Capable of forging ethnic and national
  connections
• Has the power to reinforce stereotypes
• Can evoke certain associations
• Classical music can constitute the entire subtext

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Foley Process
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• The Foley artist on a film crew is the person who
  creates and records many of the natural, everyday
  sound effects in a film, in contrast to the
  production of special (audio) effects, which is
  generally left to the sound designer.

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Foley Tricks of the Trade

• Galloping horses
• (Banging empty coconut shells together)

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• Footsteps in snow
• (Squeezing a box of corn starch)

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• Kissing
• (Kissing back of hand)

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• Punching someone
• (Thumping watermelons)

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• High heels
• (Artist walks in high heels on wooden platform)

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• Bone-breaking blow
• (Breaking celery or bamboo or twisting a head of
  lettuce)

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• Bird flapping its wings
• (Flapping a pair of gloves)

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• Grass or leaves crunching
• (Balling up audio tape)

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Ben BurttSound Designer

• In 1977, Star Wars, revolutionized film sound
  with Ben Burtt's award winning sound effects.

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Ben Burtt

• The basic thing in all films is to create
  something that sounds believable to everyone,
  because it's composed of familiar things that you
  can not quite recognize immediately"

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• Imperial Walkers
• The sound of the Imperial Walkers were created by
  modifying the sound of a machinist's punch press.
  Added to this for complexity, were the sounds of
  bicycle chains being dropped on concrete.

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• TIE fighter
• The screech of a TIE Fighter is a drastically
  altered elephant bellow.

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• Star Trek sliding doors
• (Pulling a piece of paper from envelope)

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• Star Wars sliding doors
• (Flare gun plus sneakers squeak)

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• Lightsaber
• Burtt blended the sounds of his TV set and an old
  35 mm projector to create the hum of a light
  saber.

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Editing Cubase VST
The Transport Bar
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Editing II
Arrangement Window
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Editing III
The Parts Display
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Editing IV
The Audio Mixer Window
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EQ and Effect Windows
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Audio editor
Wave editor
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Visual SFX

• SFX (Special effects') often use
  computer-generated graphics to create compelling
  realism and meaning.

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Latent Image Matte Painting

• A photographic technique of combining two scenes
• Runs film through twice, once with a portion
  blacked out and unexposed
• Used now with stills and paintings

Notice the use of bridal veil material on the
right to create diffusion and a sense of
atmosphere in this filming for An Ewok Adventure
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Latent Image, cont.

• Pros
• Original stock quality (highest)
• Matching of hues easy
• Cons
• Hard to estimate need footage with live action
• Mistakes are expensive

Latent image projection used with Matte Painting
in Return of the Jedi
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Rear Projection

• Movie projector placed behind glass with painting
• Window covered with frosted plastic
• Camera films from front

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Rear Projection, cont.

• Pros
• Easiest
• Cons
• Loss of image quality
• Least sharp image of all techniques

Composite of Completed Rear Projection from
Return of the Jedi
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Front Projection

• Both camera and projector on same side of glass
  panel.
• Scene projected through glass backed with
  Scotchlite (highly reflective)
• A partially reflecting mirror is placed between
  camera and projector at 45 degree angle (to put
  both in exact same perspective)

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Front Projection (cont)

• Pros
• Sharper image than rear (with highly reflective
  screen)
• Well regulated perspective from exact same point
• Cons
• complicated

A woman paints a matte on glass for Temple of
Doom.
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Digital Painting

• Advantages
• Ability to move camera
• No more limitations of pan
• Ex. In Empire Strikes Back
• Reflections and moving animations can be combined
  easily
• Digital editing is cost efficient and easier

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Truman ShowDigital Matte goes 3D
A camerais tracked with the image in the exact
motion and perspective of the actual camera.
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Titanic Matte and more

• Digital Matte Clouds
• Digital Animation Water (with reflections)
• Model Boat
• Animated People
• Digital Animation smoke

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• The use of a narrative structure is a major
  convention of cinema and TV. We are all immersed
  in narratives and have been since childhood as we
  tell of or hear about the complex events of the
  world not in the form of long-winded complex
  details or bald information but as absorbing and
  interesting stories. Yet this way of explaining
  real as opposed to fictional events greatly
  oversimplifies reality whilst at the same time
  paradoxically, appearing very realistic and
  believable.

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• For instance, real events are rarely clearly
  'connected' by such simple 'cause and effect'
  relationships as in stories (i.e. this leads to
  that because...). Yet in narrative they always
  are. And in the real world people are not either
  good (i.e. 'heroes') or evil (i.e. 'villains')
  but in narrative they always are to some degree
  at least. And so on. For better or worse, we tell
  and hear of world events as narratives and media
  producers know this and use it to create media
  texts that rely on narrative structures and forms
  to be absorbing, compelling and convincingly
  realistic. Because of this, filmed narratives can
  easily trick us into thinking we are viewing a
  real 'window on the world'.

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• Genre means the kind of narrative being told,
  e.g. detective, sci-fi, horror, etc. Genre
  defines a text by its similarities to other
  texts. Importantly, when we watch a genre film we
  have many pre-existing expectations of the types
  of characters, setting and events we want to see
  (prediction is a major aspect of our enjoyment of
  a film, and genre helps this). Genre conventions
  are an important way a director can create
  believable 'versions of reality' because we fail
  to see that what is shown is not reality at, all,
  but a media convention that we have become
  accustomed to seeing in that kind of film.

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• So... we don't mind the owner of a casino being
  horribly killed because we see him, in the
  gangster genre as naturally a 'villain'. Film
  companies use genre to sell and make films a
  popular genre creates a greater chance of
  commercial success and genre can be cost
  effective, making it cheaper to write new stories
  and reducing the need for entirely new sets.

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• Iconography is an important aspect of genre. We
  come to expect to see certain objects within the
  mise-en scene of a particular genre, for
  example, in a Western, we expect to see dusty
  lonely roads, saloon bars, cowboy hats and
  horses, jails, sheriffs badges, etc. in a modern
  horror film, we expect lonely girls, 'normal'
  objects, use of dark and light, etc. These 'genre
  indicators' are called the iconography of the
  genre.

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• Celebrities and film stars are an important part
  of the iconography of cinema and TV. Different
  stars can be important signifiers of meaning.
  They can create expectations of character and
  action, help identify genre, and create powerful
  iconic representation of such as masculinity and
  femininity.

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• Cinema and TV are able to offer high levels of
  'realism' the bright screen, the clear and
  powerful Dolby sound, darkened room, etc. are
  highly compelling and persuasive. Such
  'appearance of reality' is given the odd name of
  verisimilitude.

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• This is yet another convention of course - there
  is nothing 'realistic' about an image on a flat
  screen. There are two kinds of verisimilitude
  generic verisimilitude is the 'realism' that
  convinces us because of the genre we are watching
  (in the horror genres it seems highly realistic
  for a vampire to sink his teeth into a person's
  neck) cultural verisimilitude is the kind of
  reality that convinces us because it looks like
  the way things are or should be within our own
  society.

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Subtext

• Infranarrative
• A complex structure beneath the narrative
  consisting of the various associations the
  narrative evokes in us
• Films dual nature
• Level of meanings found in
• Symbols
• Image patterns
• References/allusions
• Reading critically

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Mythic Associations

• Operates on an unconscious level, presenting us
  with
• Characters
• questers
• the enchanted and the enchanter
• ogres
• scapegoats
• monsters
• talking animals
• Apparitions
• Themes
• The homeward journey
• The quest
• Ancestral curses
• Revenge
• Patricide
• Matricide

• Settings
• Caves
• Wastelands
• Subterranean rivers
• Enchanted islands
• Flat-topped mountains
• Ominous castles
• Desolate moors
• Lost worlds

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Myths

• Tap into our collective memory
• Themes of myth are universal
• Return of the hero
• The desire for forbidden knowledge
• The quest for identity
• Coming of age
• Rebellion against tyranny
• Transcends time and place
• Ultimate truths about life and death, fate and
  nature, gods and humans

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Film and Myth

• Speak the same languagepicture language
• Both are oral and visual
• Both are intimately associated with dreams
• Making a mythic association involves remembering
  a pattern of experience that is universal.

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Mythic Types

• The quester
• The convert
• The foundling
• The exile
• The knight-errant
• The blessed damsel
• The earth mother
• The lost child
• The eternal child
• The alien
• The shadow selfdoppelganger
• The liberator

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Mythic Themes

• The descent to the underworld
• The quest for the grail, sword, ring, or chalice
• The journey into the unknown
• The homeward journey
• The birth of the hero
• The life force versus the force of reason
• Wilderness versus civilization
• The transformation myth
• The savior myth
• Good versus evil

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Visual/Iconic Associations

• Icons dual nature
• Depicts not just a person but a person who stands
  out from the ordinary

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Icons

• Definition http//www.bartleby.com/65/ic/iconogr
  a.html
• Greek Icons http//web.uvic.ca/grs/bowman/myth/i
  nfo/attributes.html
• Australian Icons http//www.jintaart.com.au/icon
  ography/iconhmpg.htm
• Christian Icons http//www.traditionaliconograph
  y.com/
• Cemetery Iconography http//freepages.genealogy.
  rootsweb.com/txcemeteries/symbol.htm

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Intellectual Associations

• We relate the film as a wholenot just one aspect
  of itto history, to another medium such as
  literature or opera, to another film, or even to
  an earlier version of itself.
• Intertextuality

118
Literary Techniques

• Flashback
• Flash-forward
• Dramatic foreshadowing
• Point-of-view
• Omniscient narrator
• Implied author
• Film Adaptation

119
Analyzing Films

1. What techniques did the filmmaker use to create
   the feeling of a complete film rather than a mere
   collection of scenes?
2. Could it have been anything other than a filma
   novel, a short story, a play, for exampleand
   still have been as effective or was film the
   medium in which it reached its level of
   excellence?

120
Analyzing Films

1. How much of the film is told through images or
   camera movement, without recourse to dialogue?
2. Does the use of film deepen or enhance the story
   being told?

121
Analyzing Film

• Do the camera and the script work together, each
  doing what it does best, so that word and image
  are allies rather than enemies?
• What is the subtext, or infranarrative? How does
  it enrich the film?

122
On-line Guides

• Readfilm.com http//www.readfilm.com/HTRBook/HTR
  3.pdf
• Yale Film Studies http//classes.yale.edu/film-an
  alysis/
• http//www.cwrl.utexas.edu/hogan/fall04/FilmAnaly
  sis.doc
• http//www.filmsite.org/genres.html
• Film Terms
• http//homepage.newschool.edu/schlemoj/film_cours
  es/glossary_of_film_terms/glossary.html
• http//www.psu.edu/dept/inart10_110/inart10/film.h
  tml