Cities, Rivers, Wastes and Biological Pollution

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Cities, Rivers, Wastes and Biological Pollution
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Rivers and Cities
London
Rome
Venice
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Seine
Paris
Hudson
NYC
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Rivers and Cities
Dependable Water Supply Removal of Wastes
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History of Water Supply and Biological Pollution
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Sumer 2500 B.C.
Water Supply and Sewer Systems
Irrigation Aqueducts Sewers
Aqueduct
sewers waterways
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Roman Aqueducts
1 million people
255 miles of aqueducts
Stone, lined with cement
Water distributed through lead pipes and logs
144 public latrines
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Lead (Plumbum)
Saturn the deity of lead
Father of all metals
-lead pipes -lead acetate sugar of lead
sweetener for wine
Saturnine an individual whose temperament has
become uniformly gloomy and cynical.
Possible cause of the dementia which affected
Roman Emperors and Citizens.
Caligula, Nero, Commodus, Julius Caesar, Caesar
Augustus Domitians Fountain of leaded wine
Possible contributing factor to the Fall of the
Roman empire
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After the Fall
500 to 1500 A.D.
Diverted Wealth
Neglect of infrastructure
City wells fouled
drinking water hauled in from springs outside the
city limits
reduced the population of the city of Rome from
its high of over 1 million in ancient times to
considerably less in the medieval era, reaching
as low as 30,000
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17th to 19th Centurys
Growth of Urban Populations
Deterioration of wells
Cesspools/outhouses Leaching
Offensive Odor And taste.
270,000 cubic meters of manure (Paris, 1780)
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Graveyards in City Limits
New Yorks Trinity Church held 160,000 graves by
1830.
rank and offensive mold, mixed with broken bones
and fragments of coffins
Basil Hall, 1820
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Cesspits
Nearly every residence had a cesspit beneath the
floors. In the best of homes the nauseating
stench permeated the most elegant parlor.
To river or street
When cesspits filled to overflow, they were built
to drain to the street by means of a crudely
built culvert to a partially open sewer trench in
the center of the street
London's sewers were open ditches sloped slightly
to drain human wastes toward the River Thames
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Methanogenesis
c.a. 1850
Cesspits Night Soil Methane (CH4)
Anaerobic organisms Exist in low oxygen
Methanogenesis is the final step in the decay of
organic matter under anoxic conditions
CH4 2O2 CO2 2H2O
lamps
Southampton, 1849 "Explosions occurred in two
separate locations where the men had the skin
peeled off their faces and their hair singed.
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19th Century
The Age of the Toilet
John Harrington
1596
Alexander Cummings
1775
Not widely adopted until the mid to late 1800s
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Thomas Crapper
1866
Effectively marketed the toilet
By 1885, Boston had 100,000 toilets and thousands
of miles of pipe carrying wastewater to rivers.
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Toilets, Cesspools, Wastes and Rivers
Wastewater to Rivers

• Suspension of British Parliament
• 1861 Typhoid Epidemic

Connected with contaminated water
Thames River mid-1800s
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Disease
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Diseases Responsible pathogen Route of exposure Mode of transmission
Cholera Vibrio cholerae bacteria gastro-intestinal sewage, often waterborne
Botulism Clostridium botulinum bacteria gastro-intestinal food/water borne can grow in food
Typhoid Salmonella typhi bacteria gastro-intestinal water/food borne
Hepatitis A Hepatitis A virus gastro-intestinal water/food borne
Dysentery Shigella dysenteriae bacteria or Entamoeba histolytica amoeba gastro-intestinal food/water
Cryptosporidiosis Cryptosporidium parvum protozoa gastro-intestinal waterborne resists chlorine
Polio polioviruses gastro-intestinal exposure to untreated sewage may also be waterborne
Giardia Giardia lamblia protozoa gastro-intestinal waterborne
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Typhoid
1837, 1860-1865
186,000 people
Typhoid fever is an illness caused by
the bacterium Salmonella Typhi and is transmitted
by ingestion of food or water contaminated with
feces from an infected person
The worst year was 1891, when the typhoid death
rate was 174 per 100,000 persons
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Cholera
Intestinal disease
Vibrio cholerae
Occurs through ingesting food or water which is
contaminated with cholera vibrios
In its most severe forms, cholera is one of the
most rapidly fatal illnesses known
Shock from dehydration can occur in 4 to 12 hours
death within 18 hours to several days
8 major outbreaks from 1816 to 1896 affecting
mostly Europe and N. America
1852-1860 - Third cholera pandemic mainly
affected Russia, with over a million deaths
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Treatment Rehydration Therapy
Intravenous Fluid Therapy
1831
mortality rate of cholera dropped from 70 to 40
Oral Rehydration Therapy (1960s)
The Indo-Pakistani War of 1971 mortality rate
of 3
ORT solution contains sodium chloride
(NaCl) trisodium citrate dehydrate potassium
chloride (KCl) anhydrous glucose
Gatorade
Sodium chloride Citric acid Potassium
phosphate glucose
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Cholera in New York
1832
Croton Aqueduct system
50 miles of aqueduct

1. New Yorkers killed

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Miasma and Night Air
Theory of used to explain the spread of disease
in London and Paris
A poisonous vapor or mist that is filled with
particles from decomposed matter (miasmata) that
could cause illnesses and is identifiable by its
nasty, foul smell
Doors and windows of homes and factories were
sealed shut at sunset.
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The Microscopic Revolution
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The Microscope
Anton van Leeuwenhoek first microbiologist
Microorganisms were first identified In drinking
water in 1845.
1880 Pasteur published book on germ theory
people had a dreadful apprehension of
breeding bullfrogs inwardly.
Revolutionized knowledge of the causes of disease
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1880 - 1885
Organisms Discovered
Malaria typhoid tuberculosis diphtheria
cholera tetanus
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Discovery of coliform bacteria
Greatest impact on municipal water systems and
water treatment.
Theodor Escherich 1886
Most forms of e. coli are harmless
E. coli
1/3 weight of average uninfected human waste
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Biological pollution
Not necessarily a health threat in itself it is
used to indicate whether other potentially
harmful bacteria may be present
Total Coliforms (including fecal coliform and E.
Coli)
Coliforms are naturally present in the
environment fecal coliforms only come from human
and animal fecal waste.
Standards based on presence or absence
Freshwater Standard 200 units/100 mL
Drinking Water MCL no more than 5.0 total
samples coliform-positive in a month
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Initiation of Water Treatment
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Initial Forms of Water Treatment
Suspended Solids Flocculation Sand filtration
Flocculation bringing together of high
numbers of small particles to create larger
particles which settle out of water quickly.
1872 Poughkeepsie NY was first American
city with a filtered water supply.
- disease mortality declined by 85
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First water treatment Flocculation
2000 B.C.
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Turbidity
Suspended Organic and inorganic particles
Suspended particles often function as a habitat
for microorganisms
Higher turbidity levels are often associated
with higher levels of viruses, parasites and
bacteria.
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Flocculation
- charge
Small organic and Inorganic particles
Al3
Al3
Al3
- charge
Settling rate of particles is proportional to the
square of the diameter
Small particles settle slowly, large particle
settle quickly from water
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Flocculation
Al3
Clear Water
Small, Suspended Particles
Flocculated particles
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Filtration
solids
Water particles
Clearer Water
Slow
Fast
0.4 m/hour
21 m/hour
Physical/ biological straining
Physical straining
Particles smaller than the spaces between sand
grains are trapped Antagonistic bacteria
destroy Pathogenic bacteria
Particles larger than the pore spaces between
the sand grains are trapped
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Drinking Water Treatment
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Intakes
Surface Water Reservoirs Groundwater
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Pretreatment
90 99 viruses
screens
Sedimentation (flocculation)
Filtration
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Final Treatment
Disinfection and Fluoridation
Sodium Fluoride (NaF)
Chlorine Gas
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Chlorination
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Chlorination
gaseous chlorine chlorinated lime sodium
hypochlorite calcium hypochlorite
Common chemical bleaches include household
"chlorine bleach", a solution of approximately
3-6 sodium hypochlorite (NaClO)
A 12 solution is widely used in waterworks for
the chlorination of water and a 15 solution is
more commonly used for disinfection of waste
water in treatment plants. High-test
hypochlorite (HTH) is sold for chlorination of
swimming pools and contains approximately 30
calcium hypochlorite.
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Chlorine Disinfection
NaOCl Na OCl-
hypochlorous acid (HOCl) and hypochlorite ion
(OCl-).
Low pH
High pH
hypochlorous acid (HOCl) is responsible for the
disinfecting power. Low pH favors high
levels of HOCl over OCl- Penetrates bacterial
cell Bacterial death is rapid
Destroys cell enzymes
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Cholera and Chlorine
The first known uses of chlorine for water
disinfection was by John Snow in 1854, when he
attempted to disinfect the Broad Street Pump
water supply
public well had been dug only three feet from an
old cesspit
The intersection of Cambridge and Broad Street,
up to 500 deaths from Cholera occurred within 10
days
Applied to municipal water systems in 1909
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Chlorination
Chlorine is currently employed by over 98 percent
of all U.S. water utilities that disinfect
drinking water
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End of Lecture 26
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2. Aeration Tank Digestion
Activated Sludge Process
Aeration tank
Waste (organics)
Bacteria-rich slurry (activated sludge)
From primary treatment
4 8 hours
Pathogens also removed by antagonistic microbes,
temperature, entrapment
bacteria (90 removal) viruses (80 -99
removal)
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18701880s 1890s 1908 1915 1917
Scientists demonstrate that microorganisms can cause disease. First application of chlorine disinfectants to water facilities in England. First application of chlorine disinfectants to U.S. municipal water facilities in Jersey City and Chicago. First U.S. drinking water bacterial standard. Chloramination first used in the U.S. and Canada.

1918 1925 Early 1960s 1970s 1972
Over 1,000 U.S. cities employ chlorine disinfection. U.S. drinking water bacterial standard becomes more stringent. More than 19,000 municipal water systems operate throughout the U.S. Chlorine dioxide begins to gain acceptance as a drinking water disinfectant. Passage of the U.S. Clean Water Act for restoring and maintaining surface water quality.
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Lead (Plumbum)
Saturn the deity of lead
Father of all metals
-lead pipes -lead acetate sugar of lead
sweetener for wine
Saturnine an individual whose temperament has
become uniformly gloomy and cynical.
Possible cause of the dementia which affected
Roman Emperors and Citizens.
Caligula, Nero, Commodus, Julius Caesar, Caesar
Augustus Domitians Fountain of leaded wine
Possible contributing factor to the Fall of the
Roman empire