To Shoot Or Not To Shoot

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To Shoot Or Not To Shoot
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Why Havent We Got What We Want?

• The world is filled with insensitive SILLY
  people.
• Our publication rate is excessively modest.
• We really dont have that much to say.

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Automation Usage Decisions (AUDs)
AUDs- Choices in which a human operator has the
option of relying upon manual control or one or
more levels of automation (LOAs) to perform a
task. Optimal AUD-Operator relies upon the form
of control that is most likely to result in a
correct decision.
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Some AUDs Are Commonplace
Checkbooks may be balanced with a calculator or
by mental computation Automobiles can be set to
cruise control or the driver may operate the
accelerator pedal Stock purchases may be based
on the output of software programs or investors
may depend upon their subjective assessment of
the market
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Some AUDs Have Historic Consequences
Casey Jones
Pearl Harbor
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Some AUDs Have Historic Consequences
USS Greenville 2000
Election
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Types of Suboptimal AUDs
Misuse is over reliance, operator employs
automation when manual control or a relatively
low LOA has a greater likelihood of
success Disuse is the under utilization of
automation, operator manually performs a task
that could best be done by a machine or a higher
LOA.
Perform the actions necessary to accomplish the
objective via automated or manual control.
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Beck, Dzindolet, Pierce (2002)
Appraisal Errors-Soldier misjudges the relative
utilities of the automated (CID) and
non-automated (e.g., view through gun site)
options. Intent Errors-Soldier disregards the
utilities of the alternatives when making AUDs.
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Intent Errors Two Images of an Operator
An operator is a single-minded individual whose
sole object is to maximize task performance An
operators decision to rely on automation is
based on a number of contingencies only one of
which is to achieve a successful performance.
Perform the actions necessary to accomplish the
objective via automated or manual control.
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To Shoot Or Not To Shoot
Since 1900, 10 to 25 of US war fatalities in
resulted from fratricide
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John Henry Effect
John Henry Effect Operators respond to
automation as a challenger, competitor, or
threat. Increasing the operators personal
involvement with the non-automated alternative
augments the likelihood of a John Henry Effect.
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John Henry Effect
Variables that increase the strength of a John
Henry Effect augment operators preference for
the non-automated over the automated
alternative Heightened preference for the
non-automated option should 1) increase disuse
and 2) decrease misuse
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Design
2 (Operator Self-reliant, Other-reliant) x 2
(Machine Performance Inferior, Superior) x 14
(Trial Blocks) design Dependent Variable
Suboptimal AUDs (Superior Machine Basing credit
point on the operators performance Inferior
Machine Basing credit on the machines
performance)
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Credit Choice Screen
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Sample Helicopter Photograph
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Sample Helicopter Photograph
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Operator Response Screen
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CID Response Screen
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Results Screen
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Hypotheses

• Self-reliant operators will be less likely to
  base credit points on the CID than other-reliant
  operators
• Therefore
• Disuse will be greater in the self-superior than
  in the other-superior condition
• Misuse will be higher among other-inferior than
  self-inferior persons

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Disuse

• Figure 1. Mean suboptimal automation usage
  decisions (AUDs) as a function of operator and
  trial block for persons working with the superior
  machine.

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Misuse

• Figure 2. Mean suboptimal automation usage
  decisions (AUDs) as a function of operator and
  trial block for persons working with the inferior
  machine.

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Conclusions
1) Self-reliant and other-reliant operators were
yoked. Each had the same information. It seems
reasonable to conclude that the difficulty in
determining the optimal AUD was approximately
equal in both conditions. Thus, the large
differences in suboptimal AUDs were probably due
to intent rather than appraisal
errors. 2)Results support the hypotheses that
factors which augment the degree of personal
involvement or challenge from automated devices
will increase the probability of disuse and
decrease the likelihood of misuse
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A Few Implications

1. Operator training programs should attempt to
   attenuate intent as well as appraisal errors.
2. At least on this task, intent errors were a
   significant source of suboptimal AUDs
3. Both appraisal and intent errors are sufficient
   to produce suboptimal AUDs
4. It will be a hollow achievement if advances in
   our knowledge of hardware and software is matched
   by an equally sophisticated comprehension of the
   causes and control of misuse and disuse.

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Thats All Folks