Module 15

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Module 15

• Motivation

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THEORIES OF MOTIVATION

• Motivation
• refers to the various physiological and
  psychological factors that cause us to act in a
  specific way at a particular time
• Instincts
• innate tendencies or biological forces that
  determine behavior
• Fixed action pattern
• innate biological force that predisposes an
  organism to behave in a fixed way in the presence
  of a specific environmental condition

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THEORIES OF MOTIVATION (CONT.)

• Brain reward/pleasure center
• includes several areas of the brain, such as the
  nucleus accumbens and the ventral tegmental area,
  and involves several neurotransmitters,
  especially dopamine
• makes up a neural circuitry that produces
  rewarding and pleasurable feelings

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p330 REWARD PLESURE CENTER
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THEORIES OF MOTIVATION (CONT.)

• Incentives
• goals, that can be either objects or thoughts,
  that we learn to value and that we are motivated
  to obtain
• incentives have two common features
• first can be thoughts
• second can be objects

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THEORIES OF MOTIVATION (CONT.)

• Cognitive factors
• Extrinsic motivation
• involves engaging in certain activities or
  behaviors that either reduce biological needs or
  help us obtain incentives or external rewards
• Intrinsic motivation
• involves engaging in certain activities or
  behaviors because the behaviors themselves are
  personally rewarding or because engaging in these
  activities fulfills our beliefs or expectations

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BIOLOGICAL SOCIAL NEEDS

• Biological needs
• physiological requirements that are critical to
  our survival and physical well-being
• Social needs
• needs that are acquired through learning and
  experience
• Satisfying needs
• Maslows hierarchy of needs
• ascending order, or hierarchy, in which
  biological needs are placed at the bottom and
  social needs at the top

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p333 MASLOW HIERARCHY NEEDS
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HUNGER

• Optimal weight
• ideal weight results from an almost perfect
  balance between how much food an organism eats
  and how much it needs to meet its bodys energy
  needs
• calorie
• a measure of how much energy food contains
• Overweight
• means that a person is 20 over the ideal body
  weight
• obesity
• means that a person is 30 or more above the
  ideal body weight

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HUNGER (CONT.)

• Three hunger factors
• Biological hunger factors
• come from physiological changes in blood
  chemistry and signals from digestive organs that
  provide feedback to the brain, which in turn,
  triggers us to eat or stop eating

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HUNGER (CONT.)

• Three hunger factors
• instructions determine the number of fat cells or
  metabolic rates of burning off the bodys fuel,
  which push us toward being normal, overweight, or
  underweight
• Biological hunger factors
• peripheral cues
• come from changes in blood chemistry or signals
  from digestive organs, which secrete various
  hormones

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HUNGER (CONT.)

• Genetic hunger factors
• come from inherited instructions found in our
  genes
• determine the number of fat cells or metabolic
  rates of burning off the bodys fuel, which push
  us toward being normal, overweight, or
  underweight
• Psychosocial hunger factors
• Come from learned associations between food and
  other stimuli, such as snacking while watching
  television, sociocultural influences, such as
  depression, dislike of body image, or low
  self-esteem

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HUNGER (CONT.)

• Three hunger factors
• central cues
• result from activity in different brain areas,
  which in turn result in increasing or decreasing
  appetite

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HUNGER (CONT.)

• Psychosocial hunger factors
• personality traits
• may be at great risk for overeating as well as
  developing serious eating disorders, such as
  overeating when stressed or depressed, going on
  food binges (bulimia nervosa), or starving
  oneself (anorexia nervosa)

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SEXUAL BEHAVIOR

• Genetic sex factors
• include inherited instructions for the
  development of sexual organs, the secretion of
  sex hormones, and the wiring of the neural
  circuits that control sexual reflexes
• Biological sex factors
• include the action of sex hormones, which are
  involved in secondary sexual characteristics
  (facial hair, breasts), sexual development of ova
  and sperm

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p338 SPERM AND EGG
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SEXUAL BEHAVIOR (CONT.)

• Genetic influences on sexual behavior
• sex chromosome
• sperm or the egg
• contain 23 chromosomes (contain instructions for
  determining the sex of the child)
• egg contains the X chromosome
• sperms chromosome can either be X (female) or Y
  (male)
• XY means male development
• XX means female development
• fertilized egg is called a zygote

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p338 MALE AND FEMALE
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SEXUAL BEHAVIOR (CONT.)

• Genetic influences on sexual behavior
• differentiation
• male sex organ and male brain
• 5th week after conception, the testes begin to
  grow and produce male hormones called androgens
• most familiar is testosterone
• triggers development of male sexual organ
• programs the hypothalamus so at puberty it
  triggers the pituitary gland to secrete hormones
  on a continuous basis

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SEXUAL BEHAVIOR (CONT.)

• Genetic influences on sexual behavior
• differentiation
• female sex organs and female brain
• absence of testosterone in the developing embryo
  means automatic development of female sexual
  organs
• hypothalamus keeps female program

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SEXUAL BEHAVIOR (CONT.)

• Psychological influences on sexual behavior
• Psychological sex factors
• play a role in developing a sexual or gender
  identity, gender role, and sexual orientation
• Gender identity
• refers to the individuals subjective experience
  and feelings of being either a male or female

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SEXUAL BEHAVIOR (CONT.)

• Psychological influences on sexual behavior
• Gender identity disorder
• commonly referred to as transsexulaism
• a person who has a strong and persistent desire
  to be the other sex, is uncomfortable about being
  ones assigned sex, and may wish to live as a
  member of the other sex
• Gender roles
• refer to the traditional or stereotypic
  behaviors, attitudes, and personality traits that
  society designates as masculine or feminine

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SEXUAL BEHAVIOR (CONT.)

• Psychological influences on sexual behavior
• Sexual orientation
• refers to whether a person is sexually aroused
  primarily by members of his or her own sex, the
  opposite sex, or both
• Homosexual orientation
• pattern of sexual arousal by persons of same
  sexes
• Bisexual orientation
• pattern of sexual arousal by persons of both
  sexes
• Heterosexual orientation
• pattern of sexual arousal by persons of the
  opposite sex

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SEXUAL BEHAVIOR (CONT.)

• Sexual responses, problems, and treatments
• Paraphilias
• sexual deviations, characterized by repetitive or
  preferred sexual fantasies involving nonhuman
  objects, such as sexual attraction to particular
  articles of clothing (shoes, underclothes)
• Sexual dysfunction
• problems of sexual arousal or orgasm that
  interfere with adequate functioning during sexual
  intercourse

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SEXUAL BEHAVIOR (CONT.)

• Sexual responses, problems, and treatments
• Organic factors
• medical conditions or drug or medication problems
  that lead to sexual difficulties
• Psychological factors
• performance anxiety, sexual trauma, guilt, or
  failure to communicate

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SEXUAL BEHAVIOR (CONT.)

• Sexual responses, problems, and treatments
• Premature or rapid ejaculation
• persistent or recurrent absence of voluntary
  control over ejaculation,
• male ejaculates with minimal sexual stimulation
  before, upon, or shortly after penetration and
  before he wishes to
• Inhibited female orgasm
• persistent delay or absence of orgasm after
  becoming aroused and excited

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SEXUAL BEHAVIOR (CONT.)

• AIDS Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome
• HIV positive
• presence of HIV antibodies, which means that the
  individual has been infected by the human
  immunodeficiency virus (HIV)
• AIDS (Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome) life
  threatening condition that is present when the
  individual is HIV positive and has a level of
  T-cells or has developed one or more of 26
  specified illnesses (pneumonia, skin cancer)

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ACHIEVEMENT

• Need for achievement
• refers to the desire to set challenging goals and
  to persist in pursuing those goals in the face of
  obstacles, frustrations, and setbacks
• Thematic Apperception Test
• TAT, personality test in which subjects are asked
  to look at pictures of people in ambiguous
  situations and to make up stories about what the
  characters are thinking and feeling and what the
  outcome will be

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ACHIEVEMENT (CONT.)

• Need for achievement
• High need for achievement
• shown by those who persist longer at tasks
  perform better on tasks, activities, or exams
  set challenging but realistic goals compete with
  others to win and are attracted to careers that
  require initiative
• Fear of failure
• shown by people who are motivated to avoid
  failure by choosing easy, nonchallenging tasks
  where failure is more unlikely to occur

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ACHIEVEMENT (CONT.)

• Need for achievement
• Fear of failure
• Self-handicapping
• refers to doing things that contribute to failure
  and then using these very things, knowingly or
  unknowingly, as excuses for failing to achieve
  some goal
• Underachievement
• underachievers are individuals who score
  relatively high on tests of ability or
  intelligence but perform more poorly than their
  scores would predict

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ACHIEVEMENT (CONT.)

• Cognitive influences
• Cognitive factors in motivation
• refer to how people evaluate or perceive a
  situation and how these evaluations and
  perceptions influence their willingness to work
• Intrinsic motivation
• involves engaging in certain activities or
  behaviors without receiving any external rewards
  because engaging in these activities fulfills
  our beliefs or expectations

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ACHIEVEMENT (CONT.)

• Cognitive influences
• Cognitive factors in motivation
• Extrinsic motivation
• involves engaging in certain activities or
  behaviors that either reduce biological needs or
  help us obtain incentives and external rewards