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Categories of Research

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Title: Categories of Research

1
Research Methods

Categories of Research

2
Categories of Research

There are many different ways to classify
research
By type
By objective
By form
By reasoning

3
Categories of Research

By type
Primary research, collection of data that does
not yet exist
Secondary research, summary, collation and/or
synthesis of existing research

4
Categories of Research - Type Primary Research

Also called field research.
It involves the collection of data that does not
already exist, which is research to collect
original data.
Primary Research is often undertaken after the
researcher has gained some insight into the issue
by collecting secondary data.
This can be through numerous forms of data
collection, including questionnaires, direct
observation and interviews amongst others.

5
Categories of Research - Type Secondary Research

Also called desk research.
It involves the summary, collation and/or
synthesis of existing research rather than
primary research, where data is collected from,
for example, research subjects or experiments.
The principal methodology in secondary research
is the systematic review, commonly using
meta-analytic statistical techniques, although
other methods of synthesis, like realist reviews
and meta-narrative reviews, have been developed
in recent years.
Secondary research can come from either internal
or external sources.
The proliferation of web search engines has
increased opportunities to conduct secondary
research.

6
Categories of Research

By objective
Qualitative research, understanding of human
behaviour and the reasons that govern such
behaviour
Quantitative research, systematic empirical
investigation of quantitative properties and
phenomena and their relationships
Mixed methods research, uses a combination of
quantitative and qualitative methods for data
collection and analysis.

7
Categories of Research Objective Qualitative
Research (1/2)

It aims to gather an in-depth understanding of
human behaviour and the reasons that govern such
behaviour.
The qualitative method investigates the why and
how of decision making, not just what, where,
when.
Hence, smaller but focused samples are more often
needed.
Qualitative methods produce information only on
the particular cases studied, and any more
general conclusions are only hypotheses
(informative guesses).
Quantitative methods can be used to verify which
of such hypotheses are true.

8
Categories of Research Objective Qualitative
Research (2/2)

Helps us flesh out the story and develop a deeper
understanding of a topic.
Often contrasted to quantitative research.
Together they give us the bigger picture.
Good examples of qualitative research are
face-to-face interviews, focus groups and site
visits.

9
Categories of Research Objective Quantitative
Research (1/2)

It refers to the systematic empirical
investigation of quantitative properties and
phenomena and their relationships.
The objective of quantitative research is to
develop and employ mathematical models, theories
and/or hypotheses pertaining to phenomena.
The process of measurement is central to
quantitative research because it provides the
fundamental connection between empirical
observation and mathematical expression of
quantitative relationships.

10
Categories of Research Objective Quantitative
Research (2/2)

Involves information or data in the form of
numbers.
Allows us to measure or to quantify things.
Respondents dont necessarily give numbers as
answers - answers are analysed as numbers.
Good example of quantitative research is the
survey.

11
Categories of Research Objective Mixed Methods
Research

Using a combination of quantitative and
qualitative methods for data collection and
analysis.
Capitalises on the strengths of each approach and
offsets their different weaknesses.
Also provides a more comprehensive answer to
research questions, going beyond the limitations
of a single approach.

12
Categories of Research

By form
Exploratory research, which structures and
identifies new problems
Constructive research, which develops solutions
to an existing problem
Empirical research, which tests the feasibility
of a solution using empirical evidence

13
Categories of Research - FormExploratory
Research

It is a type of research conducted for a problem
that has not been clearly defined.
Exploratory research helps determine the best
research design, data collection method and
selection of subjects.
It should draw definitive conclusions only with
extreme caution.
Given its fundamental nature, exploratory
research often concludes that a perceived problem
does not actually exist.

14
Categories of Research - Form Constructive
Research

It is very commonly used in computer science
research.
The term construct is often used in this
context to refer to the new contribution being
developed.
The construct can be a new theory, algorithm,
model, software, or a framework.
This type of approach demands a form of
validation that doesnt need to be quite as
empirically based as in other types of research
like exploratory research.
Nevertheless the conclusions have to be
objectively argued and defined.
This may involve evaluating the construct being
developed analytically against some predefined
criteria or performing some benchmark tests with
the prototype.

15
Categories of Research - Form Empirical Research

A way of gaining knowledge by direct observation
or experience.
It is used to answer empirical questions, which
must be precisely defined and answerable with
data (e.g., "Does listening to music during
learning have an effect on later memory?").
Usually, a researcher has a certain theory
regarding the topic under investigation. Based on
this theory some statements, or hypotheses, will
be proposed (e.g., "Listening to music has a
negative effect on learning."). From these
hypotheses predictions about specific events are
derived (e.g., "People who study while listening
to music will remember less on a later test than
people who study in silence.").
These predictions can then be tested with a
suitable experiment.
Depending on the outcomes of the experiment, the
theory on which the hypotheses and predictions
were based will be supported or not.

16
Categories of Research

By reasoning
Deductive reasoning, is going from the general to
the specific
Inductive reasoning, is going from the specific
to the general

17
Categories of Research Reasoning Deductive
Reasoning

Going from the general to the specific
E.g.
1. All men are mortal. (premise)2. Socrates was
a man. (premise)3. Socrates was mortal.
(conclusion)
Thus, the conclusion follows necessarily from the
premises and inferences. In this way, it is
supposed to be a definitive proof of the truth of
the claim

18
Categories of Research Reasoning Inductive
Reasoning

Going from the specific to the general
e.g.
1. Socrates was Greek. (premise)2. Most Greeks
eat fish. (premise)3. Socrates ate fish.
(conclusion)
An inductive argument is one in which the
premises are supposed to support the conclusion
in such a way that if the premises are true, it
is probable that the conclusion would be true.
BUT WE WILL RECALL...

19
Categories of Research Reasoning Inductive
Reasoning

General statements (theories) have to be based on
empirical observations, which are subsequently
generalized into statements which can either be
regarded as true or probably true.
The classical example goes from a series of
observations
Swan no. 1 was white,
Swan no. 2 was white,
Swan no. 3 was white,
to the general statement All swans are white.
Proof by Induction

20
Research Paradigms
John W. Creswell, Research Methods, Chapter 1,
pages 5-11.
21
Research Paradigms

Before a researcher starts to develop an
experiment they must first make a declaration and
indicate what their philosophical views are on
the nature and purpose and research.
Different researchers even within the same
discipline have very distinct views what the
point of doing research is, and how to interpret
the results of an experiment, so they have to be
up front about their views.

22
Research Paradigms

There are various terms to describe these
differences in views, including
Paradigm
Worldview
Epistemologies and ontologies
Broadly conceived research methodologies
Since weve already looked at Kuhns work, well
stick with the term paradigm.

23
Research Paradigms

The four main paradigms we will consider for this
class are
Postpositivism
Social Constructivism
Advocacy and Participatory
Pragmatism

24
Postpositivism
25

Karl Popper
Born 28 July 1902
Died 17 September 1994
Born in Vienna, Austria
Philosopher and a professor at the London School
of Economics

26
Postpositivism

This is closest to the traditional scientific
method.
Specifically as viewed by Karl Popper.
You can use experiments to measure and analyse
how the objective world around us works, but the
results are subject to considerations.

27
Postpositivism

If the positivists believe that using science we
can measure, classify and understand, then the
postpositivists suggest that this is true to a
certain extent, but that we must be carful not to
forget that a lot of our interpretation may be
based on assumptions and conjectures, and that we
need to be aware of this.
This approach focuses on the quantitative
descriptors.

28
Postpositivism

Postpositivists focus on cause and effect and are
thus deterministic.
So they focus of finding the causes that could
have produces the specific outcomes of an
experiment
They also have a reductionistic view in the sense
that they want to reduce the causes to into a
small, discrete set of ideas to test.

29
Postpositivism

The postpositivists inherently believe that there
are laws and theories that govern the world and
that they can be identified and tested using the
scientific method.
So the postpositivist starts with a theory,
collects data and this either supports or refutes
the theory, which may then result in the theory
being revised before additional tests are made.

30
Social Constructivism
31

Karl Mannheim
Born March 27, 1893
Died January 9, 1947
Born in Budapest, Hungary
Sociologist who was one of the founding fathers
of classical sociology.

32
Social Constructivism

This view is typically seen in qualitative
research
The key assumption is that individuals seek
understanding of the world the live and work in
This view comes from the work of Karl Mannheim
and others.

33
Social Constructivism

These individuals develop subjective meanings of
their experiences meanings directed towards
certain objects and things.
These meanings are varied and multiple, which
leads the researcher to look at a range of views
rather than reducing things down to a few
categories.
This approach focuses on the qualitative
descriptors.

34
Social Constructivism

Thus the researchers main goals is to allow the
participants to construct their own meaning of
the situation, often negotiated socially and
historically.
The social element means that meanings are
constructed through interaction with others.
The researcher also acknowledges that they
themselves are shaped by their backgrounds and
their interpretation flows from their personal,
cultural and historical experiences.

35
Social Constructivism

The more open-ended the questioning is, the
better.
The researcher listens carefully to what the
participants do in their life settings.
The research process is qualitative and largely
inductive.
The objective is to interpret others meanings of
the world, rather than to start out with a theory
(as in postpositivism).

36
Advocacy and Participatory
37

Jürgen Habermas
Born June 18, 1929
Age 81
Born in Düsseldorf, Germany
Sociologist and philosopher. He is best known for
his theory on the concepts of 'communicative
rationality' and the 'public sphere'.

38
Advocacy and Participatory

This position highlights the view that imposed
structural laws and theories does not take
account of marginalised individuals in society or
issues of social justice that need to be
addressed.
Draws on the works of Jürgen Habermas, as well as
Karl Marx, Theodor Adorno, Herbert Marcuse, and
Paulo Freire.

39
Advocacy and Participatory

Advocates of this perspective feel that the
constructivist view does not go far enough in
terms of advocating an action agenda for the
marginalised.
Research needs to be tied in with politics and a
political agenda. It should also create an action
agenda for reform.
The researchers begins with a social issue of the
day as the focal point of the study.

40
Advocacy and Participatory

The researcher must proceed collaboratively so as
not to further marginalise participants.
In this way the participants may help design
questions, collect data, analyze information, and
reap the rewards of the research.
This approach creates a united voice for reform
and change.
It is often recursive or dialectical and focuses
on bringing about change that is emancipatory.

41
Advocacy and Participatory

This type of research focuses on the needs of
groups in society that are marginalised
The research will be analysed using a specific
theoretical perspective (or theoretical lens)
such as feminist perspectives, racialised
discourses, critical theory, queer theory, and
disability theory.

42
Pragmatism
43

Charles Sanders Peirce
Born September 10, 1839
Died April 19, 1914
Born in Cambridge, Massachusetts
Philosopher, logician, mathematician, and
scientist. He is known for his contributions to
logic, mathematics, philosophy, and semiotics,
and as the father of pragmatism.

44
Pragmatism

A view that arises out of action, situations, and
consequences.
The key focus is what works, and getting
solutions to problems.
Derives from the work of Peirce, as well as
William James, George Mead, and John Dewey.

45
Pragmatism

Instead of focussing on methods, the researcher
focuses on the problem and uses a range of
approaches that help understand it.
It is used often with mixed methods research.
In this way researchers are free to choose the
methods, the techniques, and the procedures of
research that best meet their needs and purpose.

46
Pragmatism

The researcher proceeds from the basic premise
that the human capability of theorizing is
integral to intelligent practice.
Theory and practice are not separate spheres
rather, theories and distinctions are tools or
maps for finding our way in the world.
As John Dewey put it, there is no question of
theory versus practice but rather of intelligent
practice versus uninformed, stupid practice.

47
Pragmatism

The researcher does not have to focus on an
absolute unity, there are many ways to collect
data and analyse it.
The truth is what works at the time, not based
on the duality between independent reality and
what is in the mind.
So researchers should stop wondering about the
nature or reality and get on with what works.

48
Summary
Postpositive Social Constructivism Advocacy and Participatory Pragmatism
Reality View Singular reality Multiple realities Political reality Single or Multiple realities
Research Distance and impartiality Sympathetic and close Collaboration Practical
Values Unbiased Biased Biased and negotiated Multiple stances
Process Deductive Inductive Participatory Combining
Language Formal Informal Advocating change Formal or informal
49
Research Methods

Planning your research

50
Planning your research Key questions

What do you want to know?
How do you find out what you want to know?
Where can you get the information?
Who do you need to ask?
When does your research need to be done?
Why? (Getting the answer)

51
"I Keep Six Honest Serving Men ..."

I keep six honest serving-men(They taught me all
I knew)Their names are What and Why and When
And How and Where and Who.I send them over land
and sea,I send them east and westBut after
they have worked for me,I give them all a rest.
I let them rest from nine till five,For I am
busy then,As well as breakfast, lunch, and
tea,For they are hungry men.But different folk
have different views I know a person small-She
keeps ten million serving-men,Who get no rest at
all!
She sends'em abroad on her own affairs,From the
second she opens her eyes-One million Hows, two
million Wheres,And seven million Whys!