Instructional Design

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InstructionalDesign
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Last Week Cognitivism and Constructivism
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Why do welecture???
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Why Lecture?

• 1.
• 2.
• 3.
• 4.
• 5.

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Reasons

• 1. To Enthuse Students

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Reasons

• 1. To Enthuse Students
• How? Put yourself in their shoes,
• Consider, if youve taught the topic for years...
• Consider, if new to you to do...

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Reasons

• 2. To give students the info they need

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Reasons

• 2. To give students the info they need
• How? Handouts can give 10 times more material,
  but must mix info with other materials (Make sure
  handout has lots of free space)

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Reasons

• 3. To cover the syllabus

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Reasons

• 3. To cover the syllabus
• How? In a meaningfully manner. Give the students
  time to reflect and revise. So stop teaching for
  the last 3 weeks and get students to reflect and
  revise.

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Reasons

• 4. Give the student group a sense of identity

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Reasons

• 4. Give the student group a sense of identity
• How? Group work is vital

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Reasons

• 5. Because its cost-effective - large groups

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Reasons

• 5. Because its cost-effective - large groups
• How? Instead of throwing out questions to
  students (as some may be intimidated) ask student
  to spend next 3 minutes writing down 3 most
  important ideas weve been talking about, and
  spend a minute comparing youve with your
  neighbourlook for 5 volunteers.
• Rather than getting student to asks questions at
  end of class collect on slips of paper and answer
  at start of next class or on-line on discussion
  board.

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Reasons

• 6. To help map curriculum

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Reasons

• 6. To help map curriculum
• How? Signpost the course. Show the students the
  syllabus, included learning outcomes. Number the
  topics instead of bullet pointing them

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Reasons

• 7. To see how the students are doing

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Reasons

• 7. To see how the students are doing
• How? Look at their faces
• How? Handout your slides, with first slide having
  questions about previous lecture - spend 5
  minutes of lecture getting student to answer.

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Reasons

• 8. To change student beliefs

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Reasons

• 8. To change student beliefs
• How? By sharing your experience Expert views
  Existing Theories Other students ideas.
• Make the students learning active, when students
  apply their ideas, it becomes their knowledge.

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Reasons

• 9. To help students learn

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Reasons

• 9. To help students learn
• How? For a few minutes ask the students to
  reflect on HOW they are learning. Share with
  others their approaches, their triumphs and
  disasters.
• How? Stop class for a few minutes and discuss
  their note-making techniques.
• How? Ask student to write down 3 things they
  dont yet know about a topic and want to
  learnamalgamate lists and hand to lecturer

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Reasons

• 10. To help students figure out what the lecturer
  is going to ask in the exam

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Reasons

• 10. To help students figure out what the lecturer
  is going to ask in the exam
• How? Students need to be more strategic about
  assessment, it is an intelligent response to
  their situation. But you just need to help them
  figure out your culture of assessment, not every
  little facet of it.

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What can lecturers do?

• Get a notebook per course.
• Include attendance sheets, handouts, slides, etc.
• After each lecture
• Note down errors in slides and handouts
• Write down key points of lecture
• Tricky issues
• Good examples

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What can lecturers do?

• Include questions after each lecture
• What did I do best?
• What should I avoid?
• What surprised me?
• What were the good student questions?
• What couldnt the students answer?

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Instructional Design

• Definition

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Instructional Design

• Maximise the effectiveness, efficiency and appeal
  of instruction and other learning experiences.
• The process consists of determining the current
  state and needs of the learner, defining the end
  goal of instruction, and creating some
  "intervention" to assist in the transition.
• The outcome of this instruction may be directly
  observable and scientifically measured or
  completely hidden and assumed.

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Instructional Design

• We can divide models of instructional design
  broadly into two categories
• MARCO Models which concern themselves with the
  design and planning of an entire module or
  programme
• MICRO Models which concern themselves with the
  design and planning of an individual lecture or
  teaching session

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Instructional Design

• Models weve seen previously

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Gagnés Nine Events of Instruction
Micro
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Gagnés Nine Events of Instruction

1. Gain attention - Curiosity motivates students to
   learn.
2. Inform learners of objectives - These objectives
   should form the basis for assessment.
3. Stimulate recall of prior learning - Associating
   new information with prior knowledge can
   facilitate the learning process.
4. Present the content - This event of instruction
   is where the new content is actually presented to
   the learner.
5. Provide learning guidance - use of examples,
   non-examples, case studies, graphical
   representations, mnemonics, and analogies.
6. Elicit performance (practice) - Eliciting
   performance provides an opportunity for learners
   to confirm their correct understanding, and the
   repetition further increases the likelihood of
   retention.
7. Provide feedback - guidance and answers provided
   at this stage are called formative feedback.
8. Assess performance - take a final assessment.
9. Enhance retention and transfer to the job -
   Effective education will have a "performance"
   focus.

Micro
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Reigeluths Elaboration Theory
Micro
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Reigeluths Elaboration Theory

1. Organizing Course Structure Single organisation
   for complete course
2. Simple to complex start with simplest ideas, in
   the first lesson, and then add elaborations in
   subsequent lessons.
3. Within-lesson sequence general to detailed,
   simple to complex, abstract to concrete.
4. Summarizers content reviews presented in
   rule-example-practice format
5. Synthesizers Presentation devices that help the
   learner integrate content elements into a
   meaningful whole and assimilate them into prior
   knowledge, e.g. a concept hierarchy, a procedural
   flowchart or decision table, or a cause-effect
   model .
6. Analogies relate the content to learners' prior
   knowledge, use multiple analogies, especially
   with a highly divergent group of learners.
7. Cognitive strategies variety of cues - pictures,
   diagrams, mnemonics, etc. - can trigger cognitive
   strategies needed for processing of material.
8. Learner control Learners are encouraged to
   exercise control over both content and
   instructional strategy. Clear labelling and
   separation of strategy components facilitates
   effective learner control of those components.

Micro
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Instructional Design

• The Classic Macro Model
• Blooms Taxonomy

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Benjamin S. Bloom

• Born Feb 21, 1913
• Died Sept 13, 1999
• Born in Lansford, Pennsylvania.
• Educational psychologist
• Editor of Taxonomy of Educational Objectives,
  Handbook 1 Cognitive Domain

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Blooms Taxonomy

• In the 1950s Bloom helped developed a taxonomy of
  cognitive objectives in Taxonomy of Educational
  Objectives, Handbook 1 Cognitive Domain
• Means of expressing qualitatively different kinds
  of thinking
• Been adapted for classroom use as a planning tool
  and continues to be one of the most universally
  applied models
• Provides a way to organise thinking skills into
  six levels, from the most basic to the more
  complex levels of thinking

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Blooms Taxonomy
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Blooms Taxonomy(Meaning)

• Evaluation compare and discriminate between
  ideas, assess value of theories, presentations
  make choices based on reasoned argument, verify
  value of evidence, recognize subjectivity
• Synthesis use old ideas to create new ones,
  generalize from given facts, relate knowledge
  from several areas, predict, draw conclusions
• Analysis seeing patterns, organization of parts,
  recognition of hidden meanings, identification of
  components
• Application use information use methods,
  concepts, theories in new situations, solve
  problems using required skills or knowledge
• Comprehension understanding information,grasp
  meaning, translate knowledge into new context
• Knowledge observation and recall of
  information,knowledge of dates, events, places
  knowledge of major ideas

Higher-order thinking
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Blooms Taxonomy(Verbs)

• Evaluation appraise, argue, assess, attach,
  choose compare, defend estimate, judge, predict,
  rate, core, select, support, value
• Synthesis arrange, assemble, collect, compose,
  construct, create, design, develop, formulate,
  manage, organize, plan, prepare
• Analysis analyze, appraise, calculate,
  categorize, compare, contrast, criticize,
  differentiate, discriminate, distinguish, examine
• Application apply, choose, demonstrate,
  dramatize, employ, illustrate, interpret,
  operate, practice, schedule, sketch, solve, use
• Comprehension classify, describe, discuss,
  explain, express, identify, indicate, locate,
  recognize, report, restate, review
• Knowledge arrange, define, duplicate, label,
  list, memorize, name, order, recognize, relate,
  recall, repeat, reproduce state

Higher-order thinking
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Learning Outcomes
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Examples

• Example Exam Paper 1
• Example Exam Paper 2

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Blooms Taxonomy Revised

• In the 1990s Lorin Anderson, a former student of
  Bloom, led a new assembly which met for the
  purpose of updating the taxonomy, hoping to add
  relevance for 21st century students and teachers
• Published in 2001, the revision includes several
  minor and major changes.
• The revised version of the taxonomy is intended
  for a much broader audience.

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Original Terms New Terms

• Evaluation
• Synthesis
• Analysis
• Application
• Comprehension
• Knowledge

• Creating
• Evaluating
• Analysing
• Applying
• Understanding
• Remembering

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Blooms Taxonomy Revised

• Creating Generating new ideas, products, or ways
  of viewing things. Designing, constructing,
  planning, producing, inventing. 
• Evaluating Justifying a decision or course of
  action. Checking, hypothesising, critiquing,
  experimenting, judging 
• Analysing Breaking information into parts to
  explore understandings and relationships.
  Comparing, organising, deconstructing,
  interrogating, finding 
• Applying Using information in another familiar
  situation. Implementing, carrying out, using,
  executing 
• Understanding Explaining ideas or concepts.
  Interpreting, summarising, paraphrasing,
  classifying, explaining 
• Remembering Recalling information. Recognising,
  listing, describing, retrieving, naming,
  finding 

Higher-order thinking
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Blooms Taxonomy Revised
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Creating Green Hat, Construction Key, SCAMPER, Ridiculous Key, Combination Key, Invention Key
Evaluating Brick Wall Key, Decision Making Matrix, PMI, Prioritising.
Analysing Yellow Hat, Black Hat, Venn Diagram, Commonality Key, Picture Key, Y Chart, Combination Key.
Applying Blue Hat, Brainstorming, Different uses Key, Reverse Listing Key, Flow Chart.
Understanding Graphic Organisers, Variations Key, Reverse Listing, PMI, Webs (Inspiration).
Remembering White Hat, Alphabet Key, Graphic Organisers, Acrostic, Listing, Brainstorming, Question Key.


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Instructional Design

• Other Macro Models

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ADDIE Model

• The ADDIE model is used by instructional
  designers and training developers. It is composed
  of five phases
• Analysis,
• Design,
• Development,
• Implementation, and
• Evaluation
• Which represent a dynamic, flexible guideline for
  building effective training and performance
  support tools. This model attempts to save time
  and money by catching problems while they are
  still easy to fix.

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ADDIE Model
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ADDIE Model A Analysis

• In analysis stage of ID process, want to find
  out
• Who are the learners or audience
• Audience analysis
• What is the goal or intended outcome
• Goal analysis

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ADDIE Model D Design

• Content of the course
• Subject matter analysis
• Steps of instruction
• Lesson planning-writing objectives
• Type of media or presentation mode
• Media selection

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ADDIE Model D Development

• Development of instruction
• Generate lesson plans (different from lesson
  planning) and lesson materials.
• Complete all media materials for instruction,
  and supporting documents.
• End result is a course or workshop ready for
  delivery.

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ADDIE Model I Implementation

• The delivery of the instruction.
• Purpose is effective efficient delivery of
  instruction.
• Promote students understanding of material
  objectives, and ensure transfer of knowledge.

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ADDIE Model E Evaluation

• Two related evaluations going on simultaneously
  in most ID situations.
• Formative Evaluation
• Summative Evaluation

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ADDIE Model
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The elusive origins of the ADDIE Model

• Remarkably it appears that the ADDIE model wasnt
  specifically developed by any single author but
  rather to have evolved
• informally through oral tradition.
• The ADDIE Model is merely a colloquial term used
  to describe a systematic approach to
  instructional development.

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ASSURE model

• Analyze learners characteristics, competencies,
  and learning styles
• State objectives for what your lesson should
  accomplish (ABCD formataudience/behavior/conditio
  n/degree)
• Select, modify, and design methods, media, and
  materials
• Utilize methods, media and materialsimplement
  the lesson
• Require learner participation in lesson
• Evaluate learner outcomes with objectives and
  revise as necessary
• From Instructional Media and Technologies for
  Learning by Robert Heinich, Michael Molenda,
  James D. Russell, Sharon E. Smaldino

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The ABCD Format

• Audience The audience is the group of
  individuals who are targeted for instruction.
  While at first this seems straight forward, many
  times employees will ask will I get anything out
  of this training? or should I attend this
  training? or who is supposed to go to this
  training? Without a clear-cut audience in mind,
  it is difficult to pinpoint exactly who gains
  from the training and who would be better served
  in a different class.
• Behaviour The behaviour element of the objective
  indicates the desired outcome of the particular
  learning event. The behaviour will be stated in
  the following form will be able to detail
  properly or will be able to discuss the
  mechanism of action (MOA) with the doctor. The
  behaviour is what you want the person to be able
  to do as a result of the training. It is
  important to clarify the behaviour because
  training programs can get off track when the
  desired outcome of the training activity is not
  clearly defined.
• Condition The term condition describes
  circumstances under which the behaviour should
  occur. An example would be when calling on a
  doctor, The condition describes a trigger for
  the desired behaviour.
• Degree The term degree represents how well the
  employee must perform to be considered
  acceptable. The degree of the objective is the
  measurable component. Measures can be expressed
  as level of productivity, quantity, quality,
  time, internal or external customer requirements,
  or other criteria gained from actual or
  anticipated work practices.
• From Instructional Technology - A Systematic
  Approach to Education by Frederick G. Knirk,
  Kent L. Gustafson

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Dick and Carey Model

• The model was originally published in 1978 by
  Walter Dick and Lou Carey in their book entitled
  The Systematic Design of Instruction.
• It champions a systems view of instruction as
  opposed to viewing instruction as a sum of
  isolated parts. The model addresses instruction
  as an entire system, focusing on the
  interrelationship between context, content,
  learning and instruction.

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Dick and Carey Model
Revise Instruction
Conduct Instructional Analysis
Assess Need to Identify Goal(s)
Write Performance Objectives
Develop Assessment Instruments
Develop Instructional Strategy
Develop And Select Instructional Materials
Design and Conduct Formative Evaluation
Analyze Learners and Contexts
Design and Conduct Summative Evaluation
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ICARE model

• Based on the Dick and Carey Model and pioneered
  by San Diego State University in 1997, the model
  has found a place in the higher education sector.

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ICARE model

• Introduce learners to what is to be learned
• Content of lesson is presented to learner
  involving active participation
• Apply new knowledge and skills with practical
  activities
• Reflect on what has been learned
• Extend learning of lesson by providing
  alternative resources

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ICARE model
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Tripp and Bichelmeyer

• Design that occurs in a rapid prototyping
  environment, when prototyping is specifically
  used as a method for instructional design.
• The analysis of needs and content depends in part
  upon the knowledge that is gained by actually
  building and using a prototype instructional
  system.

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Tripp and Bichelmeyer

• Tripp,Steven, Bichelmeyer,Barbara, Rapid
  prototyping An alternative instructional design
  strategy, Educational Technology Research and
  Development, 38, 1, 3/18/1990, Pages 31-44

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Tripp and Bichelmeyer

• Diagram needs additions

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Other Macro Models

• There are many other macro models of
  instructional design, we wont go into them, but
  Ive included a few pictures for your viewing
  pleasure.

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Hannafin Peck Model
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Knirk Gustafson Model
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Jerrold Kemp Model
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Gerlach-Ely Model
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Ausubels Assimilation Theory
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Instructional Design

• More in the Micro

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Component Display Theory

• Component Display Theory (CDT) classifies
  learning along two dimensions
• content
• facts, concepts, procedures, and principles
• performance
• remembering, using, generalities
• The theory specifies that instruction is more
  effective to the extent that it contains all
  necessary primary and secondary forms. Thus, a
  complete lesson would consist of objective
  followed by some combination of rules, examples,
  recall, practice, feedback, helps and mnemonics
  appropriate to the subject matter and learning
  task. Indeed, the theory suggests that for a
  given objective and learner, there is a unique
  combination of presentation forms that results in
  the most effective learning experience.

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Component Display Theory
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Component Display Theory
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Active Learning

• an umbrella term that refers to several models of
  instruction that focus the responsibility of
  learning on learners.
• Think-Pair-Share
• The Pause Procedure
• Fact Rounding
• Network Phasing
• Learning Cell
• Active Writing
• Team Quizzes

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Active Learning

• Think-Pair-Share
• learners take a short amount of time (e.g. one
  minute) to ponder the previous lesson,
• Then they discuss it with one or more of their
  peers,
• finally to share it with the class as part of a
  formal discussion.
• It is during this formal discussion that the
  instructor should clarify misconceptions. However
  students need a background in the subject matter
  to converse in a meaningful way. Therefore a
  "think pair share" exercise is useful in
  situations where learners can identify and relate
  what they already know to others.

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Active Learning

• The Pause Procedure
• We know that even the most motivated student's
  concentration declines after 10-15 minutes.
  Teaching often requires students to play passive
  roles and assume all students need the same
  information at the same pace. By using three
  two-minute pauses during the lecture (about every
  13 to 18 minutes), the students are given the
  chance to clarify, assimilate, and retain the
  information presented during the prior
  mini-class. The pause procedure can be used as a
  vehicle to carry into the traditional class a
  variety of active and collaborative learning
  structures.

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Active Learning

• The Pause Procedure
• Examples of things do to during the 'pause'
  include
• Ask students to turn to their neighbour and
  summarize the main ideas the instructor has just
  presented (e.g., List three major points in the
  last lecture and one point you're confused on).
• Ask students to read over their notes of the
  materials covered today and put a question mark
  beside anything they want either clarification on
  or more details on.
• Ask students to take out a blank sheet of paper,
  pose a question (either specific or open-ended),
  and give them one (or perhaps two - but not many
  more) minute(s) to respond. Some sample questions
  include "What are the countries in Europe?",
  "What are 'Human Rights'?", "What is the
  different between adverbs and adjectives?" and so
  on (one minute paper).
• Ask students "What was the 'muddiest point' in
  today's class?" or, perhaps, you might be more
  specific, asking, for example "What (if
  anything) do you find unclear about the lesson?"
  listing topics.
• Ask students to report their reactions to some
  facet of the course material - i.e., to provide
  an emotional or evaluative response to the
  material.

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Active Learning

• Fact Rounding
• The Fact rounding technique works as follows,
  towards the end of a lesson the students are
  asked to recall one fact from the material
  covered. Another student should not repeat a fact
  already mentioned and the activity should
  continue until all the lesson material has been
  covered.

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Active Learning

• Network Phasing
• The activity of Phasing starts off with three
  groups in its first Phase. These groups will each
  be assigned a particular section of a larger
  problem. All groups are then given a specific
  amount of time to work on either fact finding or
  a solution or both. The time frame most suitable
  for Phasing is two hours but the approach taken
  can vary depending on the needs of the particular
  problem. After a given period of time the group
  elect a leader to present their findings. From
  this short presentation the students will learn
  about the different sections of the larger
  problem.
• Phase 2 begins with the original groups being
  split in two halves and those halves coming to
  form two new groups. This formation ensures that
  all students get exposure to all areas of the
  larger problem. The two new groups will have a
  new solution or facts to find. Phase 2 develops
  in the same way as Phase 1 and the elected leader
  of each group present the findings.
• Phase 3 takes the form of a group discussion
  bringing the findings of Phase 2 together to form
  the solution to the larger problem. This
  discussion should be lead by the teacher to
  ensure the students findings are correct and to
  give suggested improvements.

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Active Learning

• Learning Cell
• A learning cell is a process of learning where
  two students alternate asking and answering
  questions on commonly read materials. To prepare
  for the assignment, the students will read the
  assignment and write down questions that they
  have about the reading. At the next class
  meeting, the teacher will randomly put the
  students in pairs. The process begins by
  designating one student from each group to begin
  by asking one of their questions to the other.
  Once the two students discuss the question. The
  other student will ask a question and they will
  alternate accordingly. During this time, the
  teacher is going around the class from group to
  group giving feedback and answering questions.
  This system is also referred to as a student
  dyad (or pair).

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Active Learning

• Active Writing
• The Active Writing technique is used as follows
• at the end of the lesson students are asked to
  submit questions based on the material covered.
• These questions are used as an introduction to
  the next lesson.
• The purpose of this activity is to ensure that
  the students will have their questions answered
  and to reflect on the material. This activity is
  different to the other because it is spreads
  across two separate lessons. This technique can
  also be used to gauge students understanding of
  a subject based on the questions they submit.

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Active Learning

• Team Quizzes
• The team quizzes activity divides the class into
  two groups (Group A and Group B). The groups are
  given an amount of time to generate questions on
  the material covered. The teacher aims Group As
  questions to Group B and visa versa. If the group
  give the correct answer a point is awarded,
  otherwise the other group must give the answer.
  The purpose of this approach is to promote the
  generation of well thought out questions and
  answers.

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Six Thinking Hats
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Six Hats Instructional Model
BLUE Introduction and overview of topic
WHITE Facts and Figures about the Topic
YELLOW Positive outcomes of Topic
BLACK Negative outcomes of Topic
GREEN Interesting outcomes of Topic
RED Personal, emotional and people-oriented aspects of topic
WHITE Review of new facts uncovered
BLUE Summary and finish up
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Other Micro Techniques

• Learning by teaching
• Problem-based learning
• Project-based learning
• Inquiry-based learning
• Action learning
• Progressive inquiry
• Service-learning

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Quiz

• Put these in order of importance on student
  achievement

Direct Instruction
Students Disposition to learn
Students Prior Cognitive Ability
Instructional Quality
Feedback
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Quiz

• Put these in order of importance on student
  achievement

1. Feedback
2. Students Prior Cognitive Ability
3. Instructional Quality
4. Direct Instruction
5. Students Disposition to learn
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Quiz
Lecturer influence
Student influence

• Put these in order of importance on student
  achievement

1. Feedback
2. Students Prior Cognitive Ability
3. Instructional Quality
4. Direct Instruction
5. Students Disposition to learn