Chapter 40 - Key Concepts

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Chapter 40 - Key Concepts

• The functions of animal tissues and organs are
  correlated with their structures.
• Bioenergetics is fundamental to all animal
  functions.
• An animals size and shape affect its
  interactions with the external environment.
• Homeostatic mechanisms regulate an animals
  internal environment.

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Points to Know

• What is a tissue?
• What are the four main tissues in animals?
• What is the basal metabolic rate (BMR) of an
  endotherm?
• What is the standard metabolic rate (SMR) of an
  ectotherm?
• How do different body plans allow contact with
  the environment?

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Points to Know

• What is negative feedback?
• What is positive feedback?

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Chapter 41 - Main Concepts

• Diets and feeding mechanisms vary extensively
  among animals.
• Ingestion, digestion, absorption, and elimination
  are the four main stages of food processing.
• Digestion occurs in food vacuoles, gastrovascular
  cavities, and alimentary canals.

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Main Concepts

• A tour of the mammalian digestive system.
• Vertebrate digestive systems exhibit many
  evolutionary adaptations associated with diet.
• An adequate diet provides fuel, carbon skeletons
  for biosynthesis and essential nutrients.

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Points to Know

• What are herbivores, carnivores, omnivores, and
  suspensioin-feeders?
• Trace the movement of food through a mammalian
  digestive system giving all organs, their
  function and relevant enzymes. (ex. pepsin,
  pancreatic juices etc.)
• How are symbiotic bacteria and protozoa important
  to digestion?

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Points to Know

• How is food used as fuel?
• How is food used for biosynthesis?
• What are the essential nutrients?
• What are some of the water-soluble vitamins?
• What are some of the fat-soluble vitamins?
• What are the mineral requirements of humans?

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Chapter 42 - Main Concepts

• Transport systems functionally connect body cells
  with the organs of exchange
• Most invertebrates have a gastrovascular cavity
  or a circulatory system for internal transport
• Diverse adaptations of a cardiovascular system
  have evolved in vertebrates.

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Main Concepts

• Rhythmic pumping of the mammalian heart drives
  blood through pulmonary and systemic circuits.
• The lymphatic system returns fluid to the blood
  and aids in body defense.
• Blood is a connective tissue with cells suspended
  in plasma.

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Main Concepts

• Cardiovascular diseases are the leading cause of
  death in the United States and many other
  developed nations.
• Gas exchange supplies oxygen for cellular
  respiration and disposes of carbon dioxide.
• Gills are respiratory adaptations of most aquatic
  animals.

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Main Concepts

• Tracheae are respiratory adaptations of insects.
• Lungs are the respiratory adaptations of most
  terrestrial vertebrates.

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Points to Know

• What is a closed or open circulatory system?
• What are veins, arteries and capillaries?
• What are the chambers and valves of a vertebrate
  heart?
• What is the pathway of blood as it travels
  through the body?
• What are the components of blood?

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Points to Know

• What is the relationship between the respiratory
  medium and the respiratory surface?
• What is countercurrent exchange?
• How is oxygen and carbon dioxide exchanged in the
  lungs?
• What are the oxygen dissociation curves for
  hemoglobin?
• What is myoglobin?

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Chapter 43 - Main Concepts

• Nonspecific mechanisms provide general barriers
  to infection.
• Clonal selection of lymphocytes is the cellular
  basis for immunological specificity and
  diversity.
• Memory cells function in secondary immune
  responses.

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Main Concepts

• Molecular markers on cell surfaces function in
  self/other recognition.
• In the humoral response, B cells defend against
  pathogens in body fluids by generating specific
  antibodies.
• In the cell-mediated response, T cells defend
  against intracellular pathogens.

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Main Concepts

• Complement proteins participate in both
  nonspecific and specific defenses.
• The immune systems capacity to distinguish self
  from other is critical in transfusions and organ
  transplants.
• Abnormal immune function leads to disease states.
• Invertebrates have a rudimentary immune system.

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Points to Know

• How do the skin and mucous membranes project the
  body?
• What is an antigen and an antibody?
• What is humoral immunity and cell-mediated
  immunity?
• What is the structure of an antibody?
• How do complement proteins work?

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Points to Know

• What is the Rh factor and why can it be a problem
  in pregnancy?
• How does HIV cause AIDS?

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Chapter 44 - Main Concepts

• Cells require a balance between water uptake and
  loss.
• Osmoregulation depends on transport epithelia.
• Tubular systems function in osmoregulation and
  excretion in many invertebrates.
• The kidneys of vertebrates are compact organs
  with many excretory tubules.

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Main Concepts

• The kidneys transport epithelia regulate the
  composition of blood.
• The water-conserving ability of the kidney is a
  key terrestrial adaptation.
• An animals nitrogenous wastes are correlated
  with its phylogeny and habitat.
• Thermoregulation maintains body temperature
  within a range conducive to metabolism.

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Main Concepts

• Ectotherms derive body heat mainly from their
  surroundings and endotherms derive it mainly from
  metabolism.
• Thermoregulation involves physiological and
  behavioral adjustments.
• Regulatory systems interact in the maintenance of
  homeostasis.

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Points to Know

• How does osmoregulation in marine and fresh-water
  fish compare?
• What are protonephridria and metanephridria?
• What are Malpighian tubules?
• What are the parts of a nephron and how does it
  filter blood?

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Points to Know

• What materials are filtered by the kidney and
  what materials are not?
• What are examples of animals that excrete
  ammonia, urea, and uric acid?
• What are endotherms and ectotherms?
• How do countercurrent heat exchangers work?
• What are some feedback mechanisms in
  thermoregulation?

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Chapter 45 - Main Concepts

• Hormone binding to specific receptors triggers
  signaling mechanisms at the cellular level.
• Many chemical signals are relayed and amplified
  by second messengers and protein kinases.
• Invertebrate control systems often integrate
  endocrine and nervous system functions.

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Main Concepts

• The hypothalamus and pituitary integrate many
  functions of the vertebrate endocrine system.
• The vertebrate endocrine system coordinates
  homeostasis and regulates growth, development,
  and reproduction.
• The endocrine system and the nervous system are
  structurally, chemically and functionally related.

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Points to Know

• What are hormones?
• How do steroid hormones cause gene expression?
• What are some hormones produced in the
  hypothalamus and pituitary glands and what do
  they do?

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Points to Know

• How does the body regulate glucose levels through
  insulin and glucagon.
• What is the fight or flight syndrome?
• How are the endocrine and nervous systems
  structurally, chemically and functionally related?

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Chapter 46 - Main Concepts

• Both asexual and sexual reproduction occur in the
  animal kingdom.
• In sexual reproduction, gametes unite in the
  external environment or within the female.
• Human reproduction involves intricate anatomy and
  complex behavior
• Spermatogensis and oogensis both involve meiosis,
  but differ in 3 significant ways.

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Main Concepts

• A complex interplay of hormones regulates
  reproduction.
• Embryonic and fetal development occur during
  pregnancy in humans and other placental mammals.
• Contraception prevents pregnancy.
• New technologies offer help for reproductive
  problems.

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Points to Know

• What are the types of asexual reproduction and
  under what conditions is it an advantage?
• Which animals have external fertilization and
  which have internal?
• How do spermatogenesis and oogenesis differ in
  humans?

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Points to Know

• How do hormones control the female menstrual
  cycle?
• What hormones are involved in pregnancy?
• How do the various methods of contrception
  prevent pregnancy?

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Chapter 47 - Main Concepts

• Fertilization activates the egg and brings
  together the sperm and egg nuclei.
• Cleavage partitions the zygote into many smaller
  cells.
• The organs of the body form from the three
  embryonic germ layers.
• Morphogenesis in animals involves specific
  changes in cell shape, position, and adhesion.

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Main Concepts

• Inductive signals drive differentiation and
  pattern formation in vertebrates.

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Points to Know

• How eggs prevent polyspermy.
• The three tissues or embryonic germ layers that
  organs will develop from.
• An example of organizer regions in vertebrate
  limb development.

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Chapter 48 - Main Concepts

• The nervous system is composed of neurons and
  supporting cells.
• Membrane potentials arise from differences in ion
  concentrations between a cells contents and the
  extracellular fluid.
• Chemical or electrical communication between
  cells occurs at synapses.

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Main Concepts

• The vertebrate brain develops from three anterior
  bulges of the spinal cord.
• The cerebellum controls movement and balance.
• The cerebrum contains the most sophisticated
  integrating centers.

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Points to Know

• How nerve signals are generated and transmitted.
• How nerve signals jump across a synapse.
• How the human nervous system is organized.
• What are the parts of the brain and what do they
  control?

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Chapter 49 - Main Concepts

• Sensory receptors transduce stimulus energy and
  transmit signals to the nervous system.
• Sensory receptors are categorized by the type of
  energy they transduce.
• The light-absorbing pigment rhodopsin operates
  via signal transduction.

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Main Concepts

• The mammalian hearing organ is within the inner
  ear.
• Most invertebrates have gravity sensors and are
  sound sensitive.
• Perceptions of taste and smell are usually
  interrelated.
• Muscles move skeletal parts by contracting.

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Main Concepts

• Calcium ions and regulatory proteins control
  muscle contraction.
• Interactions between myosin and actin underlie
  muscle contractions.

41
Points to Know

• What are the main sense receptors in humans and
  how do they work?
• How do muscles contract?
• What are the various muscle types and where are
  they found in the body?