VET 110-601 Nutrition and Principles of Feeding

1
VET 110-601Nutrition and Principles of Feeding

• Juan P. Rodriguez, PhD
• Bergen Community College

2
01

• NUTRIENTS

3
INTRODUCTION

1. A proper diet is important for health maintenance
   and disease management
2. To feed correctly we need to know about nutrients
   and their availability

4
NUTRIENTS

• Food constituents that help support life by
• Acting as structural components
• Involved in chemical reactions (metabolism)
• Transporting substances into, through or out of
  the body
• Regulating temperature
• Affecting palatability and food consumption
• Supplying energy

5
Classes of Nutrients Essentiality

• Essential Nutrients diet components that can not
  be synthesized by the body at a rate that meets
  body needs.
• Must be obtained from the diet
• Non-Essential Nutrients Can be obtained from the
  diet or synthesized by the body

6
Classes of Nutrients

• Water 2 3 times the dry food consumed
• Energy yielding nutrients about 50 80 of the
  dry matter intake is used for energy
• Carbohydrates
• Fats
• Proteins
• Minerals 2 3 of the dry matter
• Vitamins 0.2 0.3 of the dry matter

7
1 WATER
8
WATER

• The most important nutrient
• a 10 loss of body water serious illness
• a 15 loss causes death
• Functions
• Polarity Solvent that facilitates cell reactions
  and transports nutrients and waste
• High specific heat Absorbs metabolic reaction
  heat and maintains body temperature
• High Latent heat of vaporization removes body
  heat through vaporization

9
WATER LOSSES

• Urinary excretion Largest
• Obligatory water needed to eliminate waste
• Facultative homeostatic mechanisms
• Fecal loss Normally low unless intestines fail
  to reabsorb water
• Respiration evaporation from lungs. Can be high
  in panting cats and dogs in hot weather

10
WATER SOURCES

• Voluntary Drinking
• Increases with temperature, energy intake and
  exercise
• Decreases with increasing dietary moisture and
  saltiness
• Affected by physiological state lactation
• Water in food
• Dry food as little as 7 water
• Canned food as much as 84 water
• Metabolic Water

11
Metabolic Water

• Produced during oxidation of energy containing
  nutrients
• C6H12O6 ? 6CO2 6H2O
• Proteins yield 41
• Carbohydrates yield 55
• Fats yield 100

12
WATER QUALITY

• Total Dissolved Solids good indicator
• Concentration of all constituents dissolved in
  water
• lt5000 mg/liter is acceptable
• gt7000 mg/liter is unsuitable for livestock or
  poultry
• Hardness tendency to precipitate soap or form
  scales on heated surfaces
• Sum of calcium magnesium reported as
  equivalents of calcium carbonate

13
2 ENERGY
14
ENERGY

1. In plants, energy factories called chloroplasts
   collect energy from the sun and use carbon
   dioxide and water in the process called
   photosynthesis to produce sugars.

15
ENERGY

1. Animals eat plants (or animals that have eaten
   plants) and make use of the sugars in their own
   cellular energy factories, the mitochondria.
2. In the mitochondria, chemical reactions transfer
   the nutrient energy to adenosine triphosphate
   (ATP), the high-energy molecule that stores the
   energy we need to do everything we do.

16
ENERGY CYCLE
17
ENERGY REQUIREMENTS

• Increase with body size (with metabolic body
  weight, MBW)
• MBW BW(0.75).
• Increase with activity and production level
• Affected by environmental conditions,
• Affected by nutritional deficiencies

18
Energy Intake

• In general, animals can regulate their energy
  intake to meet their requirements
• This is over ridden in pets by
• Foods high in palatability and caloric density
• Low animal activity

19
MEASURING ENERGY

• The chemical energy contained in feeds is
  transformed into heat by the body. The heat is
  measured
• Energy units
• Calorie amount of heat needed to raise the temp
  of 1 g of water from 14.5 C to 15.5C. 1 kcal
  1000 calories
• kilojoule amount of energy required for a force
  of 1 newton to move a weight of 1 kilogram by a
  distance of 1 meter
• 1kJ 4.18 kcal

20
MEASURING ENERGY

1. Burning a sample of the food in a bomb
   calorimeter and measuring the heat produced
   heat of combustion
2. This represents the Gross Energy content of the
   food
3. Animals can not use all of the Gross Energy in a
   food

21
GROSS ENERGY Feces DIGESTIBLE
ENERGY Urine Gas METABOLIZABLE
ENERGY Heat increment NET ENERGY Maintenance
Gain Reproduction Milk Production
22
METABOLIZABLE ENERGY

• Value depends on
• Nutrient composition of food
• Animal consuming the food The ME of grass is
  higher for a horse than for a dog
• Estimation
• Direct determination in feeding trials
• Calculation
• Extrapolation of data from other species

23
ME determination A Feeding Trials

• Most accurate method
• Diet or food is fed to a number of test animals
• Food consumption is recorded
• Feces and urine are collected
• The energy content of food, urine and feces is
  measured
• ME GEfood GEfeces GEurine
• Method is costly and time consuming

24
ME determination B Calculation

• Using mathematical formulas based on the
  carbohydrate, protein and fat content

Nutrient Human Food Digestibility Atwater Factor Pet Food Digestibility Modified Atwater F
Carbohydr 96 4 kcal/g 85 3.5 kcal/g
Protein 91 4 kcal/g 80 3.5 kcal/g
Fat 96 9 kcal/g 90 8.5 kcal/g
25
ME estimation C Extrapolation

1. Used mostly in cat foods
2. Sparse DE and ME data for cats
3. Uses data obtained with swine

26
ENERGY DENSITY

• Number of calories provided by a food in a given
  weight or volume
• US kcal ME per kg or lb
• Europe kJ/kg
• Animals eat to satisfy their Energy Requirement
• ED must be high enough to allow animal to consume
  enough food to meet needs
• If ED is too low, animals wont be able to
  consume enough diet to meet needs Nutrient
  Deficiencies will occur

27
ENERGY DENSITY

• Energy intake determines food intake
• Diet nutrients should be balanced so that
  nutrient requirements are satisfied when Energy
  requirement is satisfied
• Levels of nutrient should be expressed in terms
  of ME rather than of weight

28
ENERGY IMBALANCE

• An animals energy consumption is smaller or
  greater than its requirement
• Excess energy intake is more common in dogs and
  cats
• In puppies, it maximizes growth but can cause
  skeletal disorders as osteochondrosis and hip
  displasia
• In young, it causes fat cell hyperplasia
  predisposing the animal to obesity
• Inadequate energy intake reduces growth and
  development and causes weight loss

29
2A CARBOHYDRATES
30
CARBOHYDRATES

• Major energy containing constituent
• 60 to 90 of DM
• Made of C, H and O

31
CARBOHYDRATES

• Classes
• Monosaccharides 3 to 7 C units glucose,
  fructose and galactose
• Disaccharides 2 monosaccharide units linked
  together Lactose, sucrose, maltose
• Polysaccharides many monosaccharides linked in
  complex chains starch, glycogen, dextrins,
  cellulose

32
Monosaccharides

• Glucose main CHO used by cells for energy.
• Found in corn syrup, grapes and berries.
• End product of starch digestion and glycogen
  hydrolysis
• Fructose fruit sugar.
• Found in honey and fruits.
• One end product of sucrose digestion
• Galactose end product of digestion of lactose
• Converted to glucose by the liver

33
Disaccharides

• Lactose milk sugar
• Glucose galactose
• Sucrose table sugar
• Glucose fructose
• Maltose
• Glucose Glucose with ? bond
• Formed during digestion of starch

34
Polysaccharides

• Starch
• Repeating units of  MALTOSE
• Main carbohydrate source in most feeds
• In cereal grains corn, wheat, barley, rice
• Glycogen
• Found in liver and muscle
• Helps maintain glucose homeostasis
• Dextrins
• Intermediate products of starch digestion

35
Polysaccharides

• Dietary Fiber
• Cellulose
• Hemicellulose
• Pectin
• Gums
• Lignin

36
STARCH AND CELLULOSE

1. Starch is glucose connected with alpha bonds
2. Cellulose is glucose connected with beta bonds
3. Animals do NOT make the enzyme that digests beta
   bonds.
4. Only bacteria make cellulase

37
More about cellulose

• Part of cell wall
• Analyzed in Crude Fiber, or better, NDF and ADF
• Only of value to ruminant animals because it
  takes bacteria to make cellulase to digest it.
• (or bacteria in the cecum of nonruminant
  herbivores)

38
Lignin

1. Not a Carbohydrate
2. It is in the fibrous part of the feed associated
   with cellulose, which is carbohydrate, and is
   analyzed along with carbohydrate.
3. Completely indigestible
4. Binds to cellulose and decreases the
   digestibility of other feed components

39
Analysis of CHO

• Crude Fiber
• NFE
• Better
• Neutral Detergent Fiber (NDF)
• Acid Detergent Fiber (ADF)

40
2B FATS or LIPIDS
41
LIPIDS

• Substances soluble in ether (organic solvents).
• Composition
• Carbon, Hydrogen Oxygen (just like CHO)
• Contain LITTLE Oxygen compared to H and C.
• Most concentrated form of energy
• GE of fat is 9.4 kcal/g vs. 5.65 and 4.15 for
  protein and CHO
• Digestibility of fat is higher than that of
  protein and CHO

42
CLASSES OF LIPIDS

• Simple lipids
• Triglycerides 3 fatty acids linked to glycerol
• Waxes fatty acids linked to an alcohol
• Compound lipids fatty acids linked to a non
  lipid
• Lipoproteins, phospholipids, etc
•  Derived lipids
• Sterols - Cholesterol
• Fat soluble vitamins

43
TRIGLYCERIDES

1. Most common fat in diet
2. Composed of GLYCEROL and 3 FATTY ACIDS

44
TRIGLYCERIDES
45
FATTY ACIDS

• Different chain length number of C
• Short 2 to 4 C Volatile Fatty Acids
• Medium 6 to 14 C not common
• Long more than 14

46
Volatile Fatty Acids (VFAs)

• 2 C acetic acid CH3COOH
• 3 C propionic acid CH3CH2COOH
• 4 C butyric acid CH3CH2CH2COOH
• VFAs are important in ruminants
• End product of the bacteria breaking down
  carbohydrate (because there is no oxygen in the
  rumen).

47
Medium Chain Fatty Acids

1. C-6 to C-14 acids are not real abundant

48
Long Chain Fatty Acids

• C DB FA
• 16 0 palmitic
• 18 0 stearic
• 18 1 oleic
• 18 2 linoleic "essential"
• 18 3 linolenic "essential"
• 20 4 arachidonic "essential"

49
Essential Fatty Acids

• Cant be formed by the animal and must be in the
  diet (most animals can convert linoleic to
  arachidonic acid, cats cant)
• Linoleic Acid 18 C, n-6, n9
• Corn, soy, safflower oil, poultry and pork fat
• Linolenic Acid 18C, n-3, n6, n9
• Soybeans, rapeseed oil
• Arachidonic Acid 20C, n-6, n9, n12, n15
• Found in animal fats

50
EFAs Practical Aspects

• You will NOT see deficiency on animals fed
  practical diets.
• You will NOT see deficiency in ruminant animals
• (there is enough microbial synthesis in the
  rumen, even though microbes hydrogenate
  unsaturated fats).

51
FATTY ACIDS - SATURATION

• SATURATED no double bonds saturated with H
  bonds CH3(CH2)16COOH
• UNSATURATED contains double bonds
  CH3(CH2)4CHCHCH2CH(CH2)7COOH
• Monounsaturated one double bond
• Polyunsaturated 2 or more double bonds
• Animal fats are more saturated than vegetable
  fats

52
Saturated Fatty Acids
53
Unsaturated Fatty Acids
54
Functions of Fat in Diets

• Primary Energy Source and Storage
• Most Concentrated form of Energy in Food
• Body Fat depots provide energy, serve as
  insulators and as protective layers against organ
  injury

55
Functions of Fat in Diets

• Metabolic and structural
• Surrounds nerve fibers
• Component of cell membranes
• Absorption of fat soluble vitamins
• Hormone like actions in body (EFAs)
• Also
• Dust control ½ to 1 does a good job
• Improves palatability of some diets

56
2C PROTEINS

• And Amino Acids

57
PROTEINS

• Composed of C, H, O, N S, P
• Composed of molecules Amino Acids
• Example

58
Peptides and Polypeptides

1. Amino acids are connected in chains via peptide
   bonds

59
Proteins

• Proteins are very complex
• Order of every amino acid is important, just like
  letters in words, words in sentences, sentences
  in paragraphs, and paragraphs in chapters.
• Proteins have primary, secondary, tertiary and
  quaternary structure
• Differences in proteins are what make individuals
  unique

60
Protein Structure
61
PROTEIN FUNCTIONS

1. Supply of amino acids
2. Components of enzymes, hormones and body
   secretions
3. Structural and protective tissues
4. Excess protein is used as energy

62
AMINOACIDS

• 22 required alpha AA
• 12 can be synthesized by all animals to meet
  their needs Non Essential AA
• 10 must be in the diet Essential AA
• Cats additionally need taurine

Methionine Histidine Arginine Lysine Leucine
Phenylalanine Valine Threonine Tryptophan Isoleuci
ne
63
Protein Quality

• Amount and balance of the essential amino acids
  in the protein.
• High Quality Highly digestible proteins
  containing AA in the proper proportions relative
  to the animal needs
• Lower Quality Low digestibility proteins or ones
  limiting in one or more essential AA
• Important for non-ruminant animals but not for
  ruminants
• For ruminants, quantity of CP is whats important

64
Evaluating Protein Quality

• Chemical Score
• Limiting AA in protein / Limiting AA in
  reference protein
• Egg protein is typically the Reference Protein
• The most limiting AA methionine, tryptophan and
  lysine
• Disadvantage Index value based entirely on level
  of most limiting AA, not accounting for the
  proportions of the other EAA

65
Evaluating Protein Quality

• Essential AA Index geometric mean of the ratios
  of all EAA in the test protein to the
  corresponding values in the reference protein
• Total Essential AA content (E/T) proportion of
  the total Nitrogen in a protein source that is
  contributed by EAA
• Estimates of Protein Quality from AA composition
  provide no information regarding the
  digestibility of the protein or the availability
  of its AA

66
Evaluating Protein Quality

• Protein Efficiency Ratio (PER)
• Weanling rats or growing chicks are fed a diet
  containing the test protein for 28 days
• Weight changes are measured and the PER is
  calculated as the g of weight gained divided by
  the total g of protein consumed
• PER indicates the ability of a protein to be
  converted into tissue in a growing animal
• Criticism
• assumes that weight gain in growing animals is
  related to N retention
• Other factors may affect rate of gain
• FIX have positive and negative control groups

67
Evaluating Protein Quality

• Biological Value (BV) of absorbed protein that
  is retained by the body
• N balance studies measure N from food, urine and
  feces
• Animals must be in maintenance
• Diet has to have adequate CHO and fat so protein
  is not metabolized for energy
• Criticism Doesnt account for digestibility

68
Evaluating Protein Quality

• Net Protein Utilization
• Product of a proteins BV x its digestibility
• Measures the proportion of consumed protein that
  is retained by the body

69
NPN

1. Non-Protein Nitrogen
2. Ruminants can use NPN because the bacteria in the
   rumen can use it to build their own amino acids.

70
03 VITAMINS
71
VITAMINS

• Organic molecules needed in minute amounts to
  function as
• Essential enzymes
• Enzyme precursors
• Coenzymes

72
Vitamin Classification

• Fat soluble vitamins A, D, E, K
• Digested and absorbed using same mechanisms as
  dietary fat
• Metabolites excreted in feces through bile
• Excesses are stored in the liver

73
Vitamin Classification

• Water soluble vitamins
• Vitamin C
• B-complex vitamins
• Thiamine, Riboflavin, Niacin, Pyridoxin, B12,
  Folic Acid, Choline, Pantothenic Acid, Biotin
• Absorbed passively in the Small Intestine and
  excreted in the urine

74
Vitamin A

• Forms Retinol, Retinal and Retinoic acid
• Precursor Carotene
• Functions
• Vision
• Maintenance of epithelial tissue
• Bone growth
• Reproduction

75
Vitamin A and Vision

1. In the retinas rods, retinal opsin form
   rhodopsin (a pigment that enables the eye to
   adapt to light changes).
2. When exposed to light, rhodopsin breaks down into
   its constituents and the energy released
   stimulates the optic nerve.
3. Rhodopsin is regenerated in the dark.
4. If vitamin A is low, less rhodopsin is formed,
   the rods become sensitive to light changes and
   this leads to night blindness

76
Vitamin A and Tissue growth

• Essential for formation and maintenance of
  epithelial tissue
• Skin and mucous membranes of the respiratory
  tract and intestinal tract
• In absence of vitamin A, they become keratinized
  and susceptible to infection
• Role in bone formation
• Affects activity of osteoblasts and osteoclasts
  of epithelial cartilage
• Reproduction
• Essential for Spermatogenesis in males and normal
  estrus cycles in females

77
Sources of Vitamin A

1. Liver is a rich source of vitamin A.
2. Egg yolk and milk fat are generally rich sources.
3. Green forages, well-made hays and legume-grass
   silages are good sources (carotenoids).
4. Grains, except corn, are low or devoid of vitamin
   A activity.

78

• Provitamins
• ?-, ?- and ?- carotene and cryptoxanthin
• Most important is ?-carotene (green feeds)
• Conversion to vitamin A
• In intestinal wall, liver, kidney and lung
• 1 molecule of carotene yields two molecules of
  vitamin A
• Cats cant convert carotene to vitamin A

79
Vitamin D
80
VITAMIN D

• Sterol compounds that regulate Ca and P
  metabolism in the body
• Provitamins
• Ergocalciferol (D2) formed when a harvested
  plants ergosterol is exposed to UV radiation.
• Cholecalciferol (D3) synthesized by the body
  when 7-dehydrocholesterol in the skin is exposed
  to UV light from the sun

81
Vitamin D

• Necessary to use Ca P
• Deficiency causes RICKETS
• Can be gotten from SUN on Skin
• Active form 1,25 dihydroxycholecalciferol
• Form in plants is D2, in animals D3.
• poultry, cats need D3

82
Vitamin D Functions

• Increases the absorption of Ca P from the
  intestine
• Enhancing synthesis of Ca-binding protein
• Facilitates deposition of calcium and phosphorus
  in bone
• Acts with PTH to mobilize Ca from bone and
  increases P reabsorption in kidneys

83
Vitamin D Deficiency

• Young animals
• Rickets with weak, easily broken bones, bowed
  legs
• Young cattle
• Swollen knees and hocks, arching of back
• Pigs
• Enlarged joints, broken bones, stiffness of
  joints, occasional paralysis
• In older animals oesteomalacia

84
Units of vitamin D

• One I.U. of vit D 0.025 ?g of pure crystalline
  irradiated
• 7-dehydrocholesterol (D3)

85
Sources

1. Most feeds for pigs poultry are poor sources
2. Cod and fish-liver oils are good sources
3. Sun-cured hays are good sources
4. Irradiated yeast is a good source of D2

86
Vitamin E
87
Vitamin E

• Tocopherols (d-?-tocopherol mainly)
• Functions
• Antioxidant
• Protects membranes unsaturated FA
• Protects vitamin A and S containing AA
• Interacts with SELENIUM to reduce peroxides from
  FA oxidation
• Prevents muscle, liver and blood vessel
  degeneration.

88
Vitamin E Deficiency

1. Liver (cells die)
2. Stiff lamb disease
3. White muscle disease (calves)
4. Exudative diathesis (chickens)

89
Vitamin K
90
Vitamin K

1. Necessary for blood clotting
2. Normally get enough by microbial synthesis
3. Add menadione (Vit K source) to be safe

91
VITAMIN K

• Quinones
• K1, phylokinone, occurs in green plants
• K2, menaquinone, synthesized by bacteria in the
  large intestine
• Synthetic
• Menadione (K3) activity is 3x of K1

92
VITAMIN K FUNCTIONS

• Blood clotting
• Required for liver synthesis of prothrombin and 3
  other clotting factors
• Facilitates the binding of prothrombin to Ca and
  phospholipids, a process in blood clotting

93
VITAMIN K SOURCES

1. Green, leafy plants spinach, kale, cabbage and
   cauliflower
2. Liver, egg, fish meals
3. Cats and dogs can synthesize a portion of vitamin
   K requirements

94
Vitamin C
95
VITAMIN C

• L - ascorbic acid
• Synthesized in liver from glucose
• Easily oxidized
• Functions
• Collagen formation when vitamin C is not
  available, connective tissue synthesis is
  impaired,

96
Required by

• Man and other primates
• Guinea pigs
• A few other species, including
• Indian fruit bat, red-vented bulbul, flying fox,
  rainbow trout, coho salmon

97
VITAMIN B
98
B-Complex Vitamins

1. Thiamine (B1)
2. Ribovlavin (B2)
3. Niacin
4. Pyridoxine (B6)
5. Pantothenic Acid
6. Folic Acid

1. Choline
2. Biotin
3. B12
4. Others?

99
Thiamine
100
THIAMINE

• Component of coenzyme thiamin pyrophosphate
• Use of CHO for energy
• Metabolism of FA, nucleic acids, steroids and
  some AA
• Thiamin requirement depends on level of dietary
  CHO

101
B1 Deficiency Symptoms

1. BERI BERI in Humans
2. Loss of appetite, emaciation, muscular weakness
   and progressive dysfunction of nervous system
3. Pigs appetite, growth, vomiting, respiratory
   problems
4. Chicks polyneuritis (nerve degeneration and
   paralysis)

102
THIAMIN SOURCES

• Widely distributed in foods
• Particularly cereal grains
• Therefore little problem, usually, for livestock

103
Riboflavin (B2)
104
RIBOFLAVIN

• Stable to heat processing but affected by light
  and radiation
• Functions
• Component of coenzymes flavin mononucleotide and
  flavin adenine dinucleotide
• Involved in releasing energy from CHO, fats and
  proteins

105
RIBOFLAVIN SOURCES

1. Milk, organ meats
2. Whole grains and vegetables

106
Niacin
107
Nicotinamide Nicotinic Acid

• Can be formed from Tryptophan
• (but not the reverse)
• (not best to rely upon cereals low in Try)
• Cats cant synthesize from tryptophan
• Active group of 2 important coenzymes
• NAD NADP (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide and
  its phosphate)
• Involved in extracting energy from CHO, fats and
  proteins

108
NIACIN SOURCES

1. Meat, legumes and grains
2. Large proportion is bound and unavailable to
   animals

109
Niacin Deficiency

1. Pellagra in Humans
2. Black tongue in dogs
3. Pigs poor growth, enteritis, dermatitis

110
B6 Pyridoxine
Three forms Pyridoxine (OH), Pyridoxal (CHO),
Pyridoxamine (NH2)
111
B6 Functions

1. Transamination, deamination and decarboxylation
   of AA
2. Metabolism of glucose and fatty acids
3. Synthesis of hemoglobin and conversion of
   tryptophan to niacin

112
PYRIDOXINE SOURCES

1. Organ meats and fish
2. Wheat germ whole wheat grains

113
B6 Deficiency

• Poor Growth, etc.
• ANEMIA
• Nervous symptoms convulsions
• Demyelinization of peripheral nerves
• Other degenerative changes
• Reduced antibody response
• Needed for normal reproduction

114
Pantothenic Acid
115
Pantothenic Acid

• Component of Coenzyme A
• Fatty Acid breakdown
• CHO oxidation

116
Pantothenic Acid Deficiency

• Goose Stepping in pigs
• Nervous incoordination
• Diarrhea
• Loss of hair, skin problems
• Poor growth, etc.

117
Folic Acid
118
Folacins

• 3 associated compounds have activity
• Functions
• Methyl transfer agent Movement of 1 Carbon
  residues
• COO- and CH3
• Synthesis of purines, DNA and amino acids
• Related with B12
• Sources
• Green leafy vegetables

119
Folic Acid Deficiency

1. Anemia like B12 but not cured w B12
2. Poor growth
3. Poor feathering

120
Choline
121
Choline

• Functions
• Methyl Donor
• Precursor for acetyl choline (neurotransmitter)
• Needed for FA transport within the cell
• Part of cell membranes component of
  phosphatidylcholine and sphingomyelin
• Sources
• Can be synthesized from Serine
• Egg yolk, organ meats, dairy products
• Legumes, whole grains

122
Choline deficiency

• Slow Growth
• Fatty Liver
• PEROSIS (also Mn)
• Reduced litter size in pigs
• Therefore add extra to sows diets

123
B12
124
B12 Cyanocobalamine

• Contains COBALT
• APF Original Animal Protein Factor
• Anti-pernicious anemia factor
• Discovered in 1949
• Sources
• Foods of animal origin

125
B12 Function

1. Synthesis of myelin
2. Transfer of Methyl Groups

126
B12 Deficiency

• Pernicious Anemia
• Pernicious means leading to death
• All the symptoms of starvation

127
Biotin
128
Biotin

• Role in Carboxylation reactions
• FA, NEAA and purine synthesis
• Found in many foods varying bioavailability
• Legumes, nuts, liver and milk
• Egg whites are rich in biotin but also contain
  avidin, which binds biotin and makes it
  unabsorbable

129
HYERVITAMINOSIS

• Water Soluble Vitamins
• Unusual, reach renal threshold
• High enough doses can be pharmocologic
• Fat Soluble Vitamins A D
• TOXIC

130
4 MINERALS

• Following is only an overview

131
Minerals

• Macro Minerals
• Ca, P, Mg, Na, K, Cl, S
• Trace Minerals
• Fe, Cu, Zn, I, Mn, Cr, Mo, F
• Ultra Trace Minerals maybe more

132
Macro Minerals

• Calcium bones, teeth, muscle
• Phosphorus bones, soft tissue
• Needs proper CaP ratio and Vitamin D
• Magnesium prevents Grass Tetany
• Na (sodium), K (potassium), Cl (chloride)
• Osmotic balance, Na pump, muscle, nerve
• Sulfur in proteins other molecules

133
Trace Minerals

1. Iron (Fe) prevents anemia
2. Copper (Cu) need it to use Fe, connective
   tissue formation
3. Zinc (Zn) prevents parakeratosis
4. Iodine (I) prevents goiter
5. Manganese (Mn) need for proper bone, activates
   enzymes

134
Trace Minerals continued

• Need only tiny amounts of these, almost
  unmeasurable
• Chromium (Cr) CHO metabolism
• Molybdenum (Mo) toxic but essential
• Fluorine (F) toxic but benefits teeth

135
Ultra Trace Elements

1. Things in this category MAY be essential but that
   has not been proven
2. B, As, Ba, Ni, Sr, Va and others
3. Some in question Va