Title: Counseling African Americans
1Counseling African Americans
2Who is African American?
- Historically
- Term was used to describe people of African
descent who were born in the United States and
who may have experienced or inherited a history
of slavery and oppression. - Modern
- Modern definitions also include those who have
immigrated to the United States and who choose
the term African American because it best fits
their group identity - E.g. people of color from Africa, the West
Indies, the Caribbean, and South America
3African American vs Black
- These terms have been used interchangeably in the
literature - However, each term may hold a different meaning
for individual clients - Important to understand how clients self identify
- Younger people often choose African American
while the older prefer the term Black - Preference for the term Black is strongest among
the college educated, affluent, rural areas, and
the South - (Emonson, 1993)
4Questions AA clients may have about Counselors
- Understand that Black individuals and families
are distinct from other individuals and families? - Understand that racism, classism, sexism, and
other sources of discrimination are real issues
for Black clients and not a sign that they're
"too sensitive" or paranoid? - Treat me as an individual deserving respect and
at the same time avoid being biased or
paternalistic or having a personal agenda?? - Know something about Black cultural expressions
values, music, styles of speech, dress,
mannerisms, and popular and classic music and
literature? - See me as deviant simply because I'm different
from him or her?
5Relevant Factors
- Historical oppression and racism
- Present socio-economic status
- Physical and mental health concerns
- Family structure
- Values
- Religion
- Understanding Black Identity Development
6Historical Oppression and Racism
- 10 million Africans, brought as slaves into the
Americas from the sixteenth to the nineteenth
centuries - In the Southern U.S., the economy was virtually
destroyed due to the war, freeing of the slaves,
and Reconstruction
7Historical Oppression and Racism
- Northern cities like New York and Philadelphia
designated certain areas of the city where
African Americans could live, and certain jobs
where they could work - The struggle to achieve basic civil rights and
criminalize outright discrimination didnt take
place until the 1960s
8Historical Oppression and Racism
- Had to fight for voter registration, equal
opportunities for education, equal access to
common public facilities like bathrooms and lunch
counters, and most famously, the right to sit at
the front of a public transportation bus - Federal government eventually provided increased
enforcement of desegregation, and punished some
wrongdoers for discrimination
9Present Status
- 36.6 million
- Roughly 13 percent of the U.S. population
- Almost 2/3rds of the AA population is in the
lower socio-economic class today. - 10.3 percent of White families with children
under 18 are below the poverty level compared to
24.9 percent of Black families with children
under 18.
10Present Status
- In 2001, the overall rate of unemployment for all
Americans was 5.8 percent but the unemployment
rate for African Americans was 10.2 percent - AA men have the lowest participation in the work
force compared to men in other racial groups
11Educational Equity?
- In 2000, 12 percent of Black males attained a BA
compared to 20 percent of White males - Similarly, 11 percent of Black females attained
a BA compared to 18 percent of White females
12Structural Discrimination
- Companies choosing to build factories away from
urban areas with large AA populations - Cities choosing to build public transit systems
that provide easy access to inner city jobs from
the suburbs, but not from inner city to central
city jobs or from inner city to suburban jobs - Funding education through local property tax
revenues, when AA inner-city communities have a
higher proportion of depressed property values
13Middle class and Upper class
- This segment of the population often has a
distinct set of experiences from other African
Americans - They are often better educated, have more
financial security, and more work opportunities - What message does this convey?
- They may also endure bicultural stress and
receive negative feelings from both African
Americans and Whites - Why?
14Mental Health Statistics
- African Americans rarely use private therapists,
but more often may use community mental health
centers (overrepresented) - An APA task force found that large numbers of
disadvantaged and minority citizens lacked access
to adequate health care (mental health) - African Americans are significantly more likely
to terminate counseling prematurely - Ethnic match between therapist and client proved
to have a greater impact on the number of
sessions attended than did treatment outcomes - Does it matter though?
- What does the class think?
15Mental Health
- According to NIMH Study the rates of depressive
disorders and substance abuse for African
Americans were very similar to Whites - The incidence of schizophrenia is slightly higher
for African Americans (could be related to SES)
16Mental Health Cont.
- Mental health problems may not be equally
addressed - MH professionals may misinterpret behavior as
being normative for African Americans when it is
really a symptom of mental illness (D.O. Lewis,
Balla, Shanok, 1979). - Black patients are often given more severe
diagnoses than Whites, regardless of the race of
the psychiatrist (Loring Powell, 1988)
17Family Structure
- Households with married couples with children
comprised less than half of the households among
African Americans. (Census, 2000) - 78 of single parent families were headed by
females. (Census, 2000) - AA single mothers are the least likely to be
divorced (17), most likely to never be married
(65), and more likely than Whites to live within
an extended family situation (e.g. with
grandparents) (18) - How do these statistics fit into societal norms?
18Family Structure Cont.
- Among single AA mothers 23 live with related
family - 4 live with unrelated, or augmented, family.
(Census, 2000) - Many negative claims have been made concerning
the influence of AA family structure on social,
psychological, and economic well-being
19Family Structure Cont.
- For example, the AA family headed by a female is
frequently characterized as inferior and blamed
for many of the problems in the African American
community - Positive aspects of AA family structure are often
overlooked
20Values
- According to McCollum (1997) African Americans as
a group tend to value strong kinship bonds, are
work and education oriented, have strong
dedication to religious values and church
participation, and tend to be more group
oriented, rather than individualistic - These values are in many ways similar to West
African heritage which values elements like
family structure, notions of kinship, and
religious concepts and practices. (Hine, Hine,
Harrold, 2000)
21Religion
- The religious customs of African Americans have
helped them to survive slavery, deal with racism,
oppression, economic hardship, and many other
forces that demoralized and exploited their
people. - Indigenous religions of the slaves continued long
after they left Africa - These religions underscored
- the unity of the natural and the supernatural,
the secular and the sacred, and the living and
the dead
22Religion
- Conversion to Christianity shaped AA culture
- The sharing of religious beliefs and practices
created multiracial congregations, and a common
ground of spiritual equality - AA worshipers also influenced the practice of
Christianity through the development of elements
like gospel music and a vibrant worship style
23Religion
- Although many slave owners tried to use Christian
beliefs to control and justify their treatment of
Blacks, the freedom to worship together as a
congregation reinforced African Americans
collective identity and helped them to persevere
through hard times.
24Black Identity Development
- Dr. William E. Cross Jr. (1971) developed an
African American identity development model that
traces the individuals group or racial
identity growth. - One of the first racial identity models
- The Cross Model
- The basis of this model is that self-perception
is based on racial factors, especially for
African Americans, because society has determined
that race is a salient characteristic.
25Cross Model
- Stages Pre-encounter, encounter,
immersion-emersion, internalization, and
internalization-commitment.
26Cross Model
- Pre-encounter Unaware of ones own racial or
cultural identity. Person is unconscious of
negative stereotypes against African Americans - Consciously or unconsciously devalue their own
Blackness and concurrently value White values and
ways. Pressure to assimilate and acculturate into
White society
27Cross Model
- Encounter A specific event or experience
happens that causes a person to feel the need for
change by becoming aware of her/his own racial
identity
28Cross Model
- Immersion-emersion - Individuals seek to immerse
themselves in their ethnic culture through active
exploration of cultural identity. Ethnic culture
becomes a positive, beautiful worldview, and the
majority culture may be seen as negative or
flawed. - Feelings of guilt and anger seem to dissipate
with a rise in pride
29Cross Model
- Internalization Stage - Identity is solidified,
and the individual may have a deep and integrated
sense of their racial/ethnic identity. The
individual is more at ease with their own
standard of cultural identity. - Internalization-commitment Stage - The individual
has a long-term commitment and involvement in
their own cultural identity. - Commitment to community/people of similar
cultural heritage - Anti-White feelings subside as the person becomes
more flexible, more tolerant, and more
bicultural/multicultural
30Modifications
- This model was later expanded to include all
people of color - Minority Identity Theory Model
- This model included the stages of
- 1. Conformity
- 2. Dissonance
- 3. Resistance
- 4. Introspection
- 5. Integrative Awareness
31Racial/Cultural Identity Development Model
- Conformity - Individuals accept the values of the
majority culture. Ethnic individuals in this
culture may value White role models, White
standards of beauty and success, and may even
believe it is better to be white. There may be
underlying negative emotions toward self.
32Racial/Cultural Identity Development Model
- Dissonance Stage - Individuals begin to
acknowledge the personal impact of racism. An
event, or trigger, causes the individual to
examine and question their own set of beliefs.
Confusion and conflict toward dominant cultural
system emerges
33Racial/Cultural Identity Development Model
- Resistance Active rejection of the dominant
culture and active involvement in ones own
culture - Introspection Starts to question the values of
both his/her minority group and the dominant
group - Integrative Awareness Person develops cultural
identity based on both minority and dominant
cultural values
34Guidelines for clinical practice
- Clients reactions- Sometimes clients feel
uncomfortable working with a counselor of a
different race would this be a problem for you? - Examine clients worldviews and believes about
counseling - Egalitarian relationship (self disclosure). Talk
about non-counseling topics if client is hostile
or aloof.
35Guidelines for clinical practice
- Reaction to racial oppression- How much does
racism play a role in client problem? - How client responded to discrimination
- Positive assets of client (e.g. family, church,
etc.) - Help client define goals
- Degree of adoption to majority culture values
- Personal experience of the individual