Environmental and multi-cultural influences: Where do we stand?

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Environmental and multi-cultural influences
Where do we stand?

• The precise manner in which environmental and
  cultural influences are incorporated
  psychologically has not yet been
  determined.But, what we do know is that Culture
  matters in psychology.

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Lessons Learned

• What are some bottom lines?
• There are no absolutes.
• Cultural influences are complex and dynamic.
• Free Will is relevant.
• Attributing cause is extremely complicated.
• The field of psychology must address culture,
  theoretically and methodologically.
• Real world intercultural relations provide
  ultimate validation of the relevance of culture..
  

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BUILDING INTERCULTURALCOMPETENCE

• The most frequently cited work in this area is by
  M. J. Bennett. He views intercultural competence
  (IC) more in terms of an ongoing, developmental
  approach than a grouping of specific behaviors.

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• Bennett (1993) proposed a model of Intercultural
  Sensitivity which he defines as
• The construction of reality as increasingly
  capable of accommodating cultural differences
  that constitute development Bennett, 1993, p4).

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BUILDING INTERCULTURALCOMPETENCE

• Six Stages of Inter-cultrual Relations
• Three stages of Ethnocentrism
• Denial
• Defense
• Minimization
• Three Stages of Ethnorelativism
• Acceptance
• Adaptation
• Integration

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BUILDING INTERCULTURALCOMPETENCE

• Ethnocentrism A simple way to conceive of the
  three stages of ethnocentrism is in terms of
  attitudes toward cultural differences those in
  the denial stage deny the existence of cultural
  differences, those in the defense stage demonize
  them, and those in the minimization stage
  trivialize differences

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ETHNOCENTRISM

• Bennet outlines three stages in his ethnocentric
  mode of Intercultural sensitivity, as follows
• Stage One Denial
• - This is a primitive ethnocentric stage in
  which there is denial that cultural differences
  even exist.

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• Persons at this stage are not threatened by
  cultural differences because they refuse to
  accept them. Generally, those who experience
  cultural denial have not had extensive contact
  with people different from themselves, and thus
  have no experiential basis for believing in other
  cultures.  A key indicator of the denial stage is
  the belief that you know better than the locals.

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Stage (cont.)

• Stage Two Defense
• - At this stage there is acknowledgement of
  cultural differences, BUT these differences are
  seen as threatening to self.
• - As a defense mechanism, many people denigrate
  others and express derogatory attitudes and
  behaviors towards them.

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• Cultural differences at this stage are seen as
  problems to be overcome, and there is a dualistic
  us vs. them mentality. Persons in the defense
  stage feel threatened by competing cultures,
  tend to surround themselves with member of their
  own culture, and avoid contact with them.

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Satges (cont.)

• Stage Three Minimization
• - This stages involves recognition of cultural
  differences BUT downplaying their importance in
  our lives.

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• People in the minimization stage of ethnocentrism
  are still threatened by cultural differences, but
  try to minimize them by telling themselves that
  people are more similar than dissimilar. They
  still have not developed cultural self-awareness,
  and are insistent about getting along with
  everyone.

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ETHNORELATIVISM

• Stage Four Acceptance
• - First stage under ethnorelativism
• - Cultural differences at this stage are
  recognized and accepted. Notions of biculturalism
  and multiculturalism stem from thinking at this
  stage.

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• In this first stage of ethnorelativism, people
  begin recognize other cultures and to accept them
  as viable alternatives to their own worldview.
  People in the acceptance phase can be thought of
  as culture-neutral, seeing differences as
  neither bad nor good, but rather as a fact of
  life.

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Stages (cont.)

• Stage Five Adaptation
• During the adaptation phase, people begin to
  view cultural differences as a valuable resource,
  and thus relish the differences. Because
  differences are seen as positive, people
  consciously adapt their behaviors to the
  different cultural norms of their environment.

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Stages (cont.)

• Stage Six Integration
• - The final stage of ethno-relativism has to do
  with the integration of plurality into our
  cognitive organizational structures and our
  behavior at the level of a philosophy as well as
  a conscious awareness.
• - At this stage cultural differences are
  evaluated on the basis of plurality and context
  as opposed to a single cultural perspective.

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• In this stage, people acceptance of their
  identity is not based in any single culture. Once
  integrated, people can effortlessly and even
  unconsciously shift between worldviews and
  cultural frames of reference. Though they
  maintain their own individual identity, they
  naturally integrate aspects of other cultures
  into it.

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• Bennetts model offers a means of identifying the
  various stages involved in the development of
  ethno-relativism as well as the specific skills,
  cognitions, and emotional processes associated
  with each of these stages.

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Developmental Processes and Culture
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• COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
• Does Culture play a role?
• What does the research show?

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Piagets Theory

• Cognitive Development involves various
  qualitatively different stages.
• Piagets theory (based on observations of Swiss
  children)
• Sensorimotor stage birth to 2 years
• Preoperational stage 2 to 6-7 years
• Conservation, centration, irreversibility,
  egocentrism, animism
• Concrete operations stage 6-7 to 11 years
• Formal operations stage 11 years to adulthood

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Piagets Theory

• Mechanisms for moving from one stage to next
• Assimilation fitting new ideas into preexisting
  understanding of world
• Accommodation changing ones understanding of
  world to accommodate ideas that conflict with
  existing concepts
• Piaget believed these stages to be universal

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Piagets Theory in Cross-Cultural Perspective

• Do Piagets stages occur in the same order in
  different cultures?
• Yes
• Are the ages that Piaget associated with each
  stage of development the same in all cultures?
• No, cultural variations exist (but children may
  have potential to solve tasks sooner)

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Piagets Theory in Cross-Cultural Perspective

• Are there culture-based variations within, rather
  than between, Piagets stages?
• Yes, cultural variations in the order in which
  skills within a particular stage are qcquired
• Do non-Western cultures regard scientific
  reasoning as the ultimate developmental end
  point?
• No
• Ex) Islamic educational systems

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Piagets Theory Summary and Discussion

• In some cultures, very few can complete a
  fourth-stage Piagetian task
• Cultural appropriateness of tasks
• Skills being tested
• Role of previous knowledge and cultural values
• Universality of fourth stage has not been
  demonstrated

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Other Theories of Cognitive Development

• Great divide theory
• Separates Westerners from those in less
  technologically and educationally advanced
  societies
• Non-Westerners development seen as inferior
• Justification of colonial imperialism,
  ethnocentric
• Non-westerners also have ethnocentric assumptions

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• MORAL REASONING

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Kohlbergs Theory of Morality

• Kohlbergs theory of moral development
• Preconventional morality compliance with rules
  to avoid punishment and gain rewards
• Conventional morality conformity to rules
  defined by others approval or societys rules
• Postconventional morality moral reasoning on
  basis of individual principles and conscience

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Cross-Cultural Studies of Moral Reasoning

• Cross-cultural studies suggest many aspects of
  Kohlbergs theory of morality are universal
• Snarey (1985), Ma (1988)
• Cross-cultural studies also raise questions about
  the universality of Kohlbergs higher stages
• Cultural biases
• Moral reasoning at higher stages is
  culture-specific

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Cross-Cultural Studies of Moral Reasoning

• Miller
• Moralities of community
• Moralities of divinity

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• OTHER DEVELOPMENTAL PROCESSES

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• Developmental research offer insights into causes
  and contexts of ontogenesis of cultural
  differences
• Cross-cultural developmental research in many
  areas such as future-oriented goals and
  commitments, social expectations, affective and
  romantic relationships in adolescence, etc.