BUILDING CONSTRUCTION IV

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BUILDING CONSTRUCTION IV STRUCTURAL STEEL
CONSTRUCTION
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4. STRUCTURAL STEEL CONSTRUCTION
4.1
4.1 STRUCTURAL STEEL FLOOR FRAMING
SYSTEMS Structural steel girders, beams, and
columns are used to construct a skeleton frame
for structures ranging in size from one-story to
skyscrapers. Because structural steel is
difficult to work with on site, it is normally
cut, shaped, and drilled in a fabrication shop
according to design specifications this can
result in relatively fast, precise construction
of a structural frame. Structural steel may be
left exposed in unprotected non-combustible
construction, but because steel can lose strength
rapidly in a fire, fire-rated assemblies or
coatings are required to qualify as
fire-resistive construction.
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4.1.1 ONE-WAY BEAM SYSTEM
4.1
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4.1.2 TWO-WAY BEAM SYSTEM
4.1
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4.1
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4.1.3 THREE-WAY BEAM SYSTEM
4.1
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4.2 STEEL COLUMNS CONNECTIONS 4.2.1 TYPES OF
STEEL COLUMNS Steel columns are of the following
types a. Struts of one or two angles. These are
used for compression members in roof trusses,
light towers, and lattice girders. The two angles
of a double struts are riveted together by rivets
driven through washers placed between the two
angles at intervals of 4 to 6 ft.
4.0
b. Starred angles of two or four connected by
batten plate spaced at intervals of 3 to 4ft.
These are used to support the light loads.
4.2
c. Latticed Columns made up of channels or angles
connected by lattice bars are often used where
light loads are to be supported on long columns.
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d. Rolled H-columns. These are obtainable with
depths ranging from 6 to 16 and are now
commonly used instead of built-up columns in
steel skeleton construction. e. Built-up
Columns. These are usually of H-shaped section
formed by a combination of plates and angles
although box columns with two or more webs are
not uncommonly used in heavy building frames.
f. Top Chord sections of heavy trusses are
usually unsymmetrical and are made of two rolled
or built-up channel sections and a cover plate.
The open (bottom) side of the section is latticed.
4.2
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g. Columns for bents are sometimes made up of a
pair of channels and an I beam with batten
plates at intervals of 3 to 4 ft. connecting the
flanges of the channels. Columns made of four
angles and a web-plate are commonly used in mill
building bents. h. Battened columns are those in
which two component parts of the column are
connected only by batten plates. They are
decidedly inferior to latticed columns and should
be avoided if a continuous plate or latticing can
be used instead.
4.2
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4.2.2 LALLY COLUMNS These are columns made up
of a cylindrical steel pipe shell filled with
11-1/23 Portland cement concrete. The standard
type of lally column is reinforced with only the
steel pipe shell. Special types of columns are
obtainable with additional reinforcement
consisting of steel pipe, reinforcing bars or
structural steel shapes. The light weight column
is 4 in outside diameter with a shell thickness
of 0.134, while the heavy-weight columns are
from 3-1/2 to 12-3/4 inches in outside diameter
with shell thicknesses of 0.216 to 0.375 inches.
4.2
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4.2.3 COMPOSITE COLUMNS These are columns in
which a concrete core is further reinforced with
a steel or cast-iron core designed to support a
part of the load. Steel cores may be structural
H-sections or four angles, latticed or battened
cast-iron cores are usually either solid shafts
or hollow pipe sections. The column may be
further reinforced by vertical rods or bars
placed at the circumference and enclosed by
spirals.
4.2
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4.2.4 STEEL COLUMN CONNECTIONS 1. Column Bases
4.2
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2. Column Splices
4.2
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4.3 STEEL BEAMS CONNECTIONS 4.3.1 TYPES OF
STEEL BEAMS Steel beams may be rolled in the
shape of the letter I (I-beams), channel beams or
angles. Beams of T shape were formerly used but
have now been restricted to minor uses. The
I-beam is the ideal type of steel beam.
4.0
4.3
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Girders may be built up of angles and plates
riveted together for long spans and for unusual
cases of very heavy loading. Those are of two
types a. Plate Girders. A plate girder is a
beam composed of a wide plate, known as a web, at
the top and bottom of which are riveted angles
and plates. The simplest type of plate girder
consists of a web and four flange angles. If this
does not give sufficient flange area, cover
plates may be added. The web may be frequently
reinforced against buckling by angles riveted to
its sides, known as stiffener angles. b. Box
Girders. This is a built up beam in which more
than one web plate is used.
4.3
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Beams and girders may be connected to columns by
either seated connections or framed
connections. In a seated connection the bottom
flange of the beam rests on and is field-riveted
to an angle shop-riveted to the flange or web of
the column. Another angle is field-riveted to the
column and to the top flange of the beam. In a
framed connection the web of the beam or girder
is connected by angles or by gusset-plates to the
column. In framed connections, angle seats are
usually shop-riveted to the columns to hold the
beam or girder during erection.
4.3
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• 4.3.2 STEEL BEAM CONNECTIONS
• MOMENT CONNECTIONS
• AISC Type 1 also called Rigid Frame connections
  are able to hold their original angle under
  loading by developing a specified resisting
  moment, usually by means of plates welded or
  bolted to the beam flanges and the supporting
  column.

4.3
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B. SHEAR CONNECTIONS AISC Type 2 Simple Frame
connections are made to resist only shear and are
free to rotate under gravity loads. Shear walls
or diagonal bracing is required for lateral
stability of the structure.
4.3
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C. SEMI-RIGID CONNECTIONS AISC Type 3
Semi-Rigid Frame connections assume beam and
girder connections possess a limited but known
moment resisting capacity.
4.3
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4.4 OPEN-WEB STEEL JOISTS Open web joists are
lightweight, shop fabricated steel members having
a trussed web. A K series joist has a web
consisting of a single bent bar, running in a
zigzag pattern between the upper and lower
chords. The LH and DLH series joists have heavier
web and chord members and are for increased loads
and spans.
4.0
4.4
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4.5 METAL DECKING Metal decking are corrugated
steel panels used as a working platform during
construction and eventually as formwork for
sitecast concrete slab. The decking panels are
secured with puddle-welds or shear welded through
the decking to the supporting steel joists or
beams. The panels are fastened to each other
along their sides with screws, weld, or button
punching standing seams. If the deck is to serve
as a structural diaphragm and transfer lateral
loads to shear walls, its entire perimeter is
welded to steel supports. In addition, more
stringent requirements to support and side lap
fastening may apply. There are three major types
of metal decking
4.0
4.5
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4.5.1 FORM DECKING serves as a permanent
formwork for a reinforced concrete slab until the
slab can support itself and its live load.
4.5
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4.5.2 COMPOSITE DECKING serves as a tensile
reinforcement for the concrete slab to which it
is bonded with embossed rib pattern. Composite
action between the concrete slab and the floor
beams or joists can be achieved by welding shear
studs through the decking to the supporting beam
below.
4.5
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4.5.3 CELLULAR DECKING manufactured by welding a
corrugated sheet to a flat steel sheet, forming a
series of spaces or raceways for electrical and
communications wiring special cutouts are
available for floor outlets. The decking may
serve as an acoustic ceiling when the perforated
cells are filled with glass fiber.
4.5
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4.6 STEEL TRUSSES RIGID FRAMES 4.6.1 ROOF
TRUSSES TRUSSES. A truss is a structural
framework composed of a series of straight
members so arranged and fastened together that
external loads applied to it will cause only
direct stress in the members. The upper and lower
members of a truss are called the top chord and
bottom chord respectively. The members of the
truss which are framed between and join the top
and bottom members are called web members.
4.6
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4.6
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When the external loads act downward and the
truss is supported at the ends, the top chord is
always in compression and the lower chord always
in tension, similar to the upper and lower
flanges of a beam. The web-members are subjected
to stresses of either tension or compression.
Web-members subjected to tensile stresses are
called tension web-members those which are
subjected to compression are called compression
web-members. In certain positions, a web-member
may be subjected to tension through the action of
a load applied at one point, and when applied at
another point that load may produce compression
in the member so that at one time it will be
subjected to tension and at another time to
compression. Such a member, designed to resist
either tension or compression, is called a
counterbrace. A member of a truss system which
acts only for a particular partial loading, and
which has a zero stress when the truss is
completely loaded is called a counter.
4.6
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When a truss is supported at its ends by columns,
the truss together with its columns, considered
as a unit, is called a bent. The intersection
between two or more members of the truss is
called a joint or panel joint and the distance
between two adjacent joints along either the top
or bottom chords is known as the panel or panel
length. The quadrangular space, crossed by an
inclined web-member, is also referred to as a
panel. The axes of all members at each joint
should always meet in a common point. The span
of a roof truss is the distance between the
centers of the supports and its rise is the
distance between the apex of the truss and the
line joining the points of support. The pitch of
a roof truss is the ratio of the rise to the span
for a truss symmetrical about its center line.
The slope of an inclined member is the tangent of
the angle of inclination with the horizontal,
usually specified in inches rise per 12
run. The portion of the roof between two
adjacent trusses is called a bay.
4.6
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4.6.2 TYPES OF TRUSSES A. RELATIVE TO THE NUMBER
AND ARRANGEMENT OF THE MEMBERS COMPOSING THE
TRUSS 1. Complete Frame. A complete structural
frame, or truss, is one which is made up of the
minimum number of members required to provide a
complete system of triangles fixing the relative
positions of a given number of panel joints. If
the number of panel points in the given structure
and n the number of necessary members. n 2p
3 2. Incomplete Frame. One in which the number
of members is less than that required by the
equation given above. 3. Redundant Frame. A
redundant frame is one which contains more
members than that required by the equation given
above.
4.6
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B. RELATIVE TO FORM 1. Triangular 2.
Quadrangular 3. Crescent 4. Scissors 5.
Arched
DOUBLE HOWE
WARREN
4.6
BOWSTRING
SCISSORS
CAMBERED
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C. RELATIVE TO METHOD OF SUPPORT 1. Simple
Truss. A truss supported at each end-point. 2.
Overhanging end span. A truss supported at one
end-joint and other joint not an end-joint. 3.
Cantilever span. A truss where the entire support
is at one end only.
4.6
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D. RELATIVE TO ARRANGEMENT OF THE WEB-BRACING
SYSTEM
FINK
SAWTOOTH
4.6
HOWE
WARREN
PRATT
PETTIT
SCISSORS
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4.6.3 RIGID FRAMES Rigid frames consist of two
columns and a beam or girder that are rigidly
connected at their joints. Applied loads produce
axial, bending and shear forces in all members of
the frame since the rigid joints restrain the
ends of the members from rotating freely. In
addition, vertical loads cause a rigid frame to
develop horizontal thrusts at its base. A rigid
frame is statically indeterminate and rigid only
in its plane.
4.6
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4.7 STRUCTURAL STEEL FRAMING SYSTEMS 4.7.1
ARRANGEMENT OF VERTICAL COMPONENTS
4.7
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4.7
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• 4.7.2 STRENGTHENING THE FRAMING SYSTEM
• The framing system can be stiffened against
  horizontal forces in the following three (3)
  methods
• The structure is composed of rigid frames which
  may comprise some hinged joints but there must be
  sufficient rigid joints to ensure that none of
  the nodes of the frame is free to move sideways.
  The members may be straight or curved and a
  variety of shapes may be chosen for such framed
  structure.

4.7
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1. A bracing system which consists of a triangulated
   framework of rolled sections will hold the joints
   together and further strengthen the framework
   against lateral loads. The center lines of
   members converging at a joint should intersect at
   one point. The joints themselves are
   conventionally assumed to be hinged, so that the
   members are either ties or struts, loaded purely
   in tension or compression, respectively. However,
   the overall bracing effect of a lattice system
   can be enhances by constructing it with tiff
   members and rigid joints.

4.7
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1. Finally, shear walls in the form of more or less
   solid diaphragms, usually of reinforced concrete,
   transmit the wind and earthquake forces by shear
   and bending.

4.7
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4.7.3 The Ultimate Structures for Skyscrapers
THE TUBULAR FRAME The high-rise building
conceived as a rigid tube --- If a high-rise
building is of suitably compact shape on plan
(circular, square, not too narrow a rectangle),
the external columns can be structurally merged
with the external lattice bracing or with
spandrel girders so as to form a vast rigid tube.
This stiffening system is particularly effective
and economical. This is due not only to the
optimum distribution of the bracing, but also
more particularly to the co-operation of all the
columns and bracing or spandrel girders in the
external walls.
4.7
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The John Hancock Center, Chicago (architects
Graham and Skidmore, Owings and Merrill) employs
the tube in its framing system. In this 335 m
high 100-story building, all the horizontal
forces are transmitted through external bracing,
whereby a substantial saving has been achieved in
comparison with a bracing system located in the
interior. The external lattice members form a
distinctive architectural feature.
4.7
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4.8 STEEL WELDING Welding has become fully
accepted as a means of joining steel structural
members in buildings because it has the inherent
advantage of fusing the metals to be joined,
thereby simplifying connections and fabricating
operations. 4.8.1 DEFINITION OF FUSION WELDING
(ELECTRIC ARC WELDING) The fusion welding
process employs an electric arc, wherein energy
in the form of heat is supplied by establishing
an arc between the base or parent metal (the
parts to be joined) and a metal electrode. As the
arc is formed, tremendous heat is concentrated at
the point of welding. Instantly, the materials
are at melting-point temperature. The parent
metal melts in a small pool and additional metal
supplied by the electrode is transferred through
the arc an deposited in the pool. As the
electrode continues along the joint, the molten
metal left behind solidifies to form the weld.
4.8
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4.8.2 COATED ELECTRODES Most welding is done
with coated electrodes. The function of the
coating is to form a gaseous shield, which
protects the arc and molten metal from contact
with the air. Oxides and nitrides resulting from
contact with the air tend to produce brittle
welds. The coating also forms a slag-fuse shield,
which floats above the molten metal, protecting
it from the atmosphere. The slag is easily
removed after the weld has cooled. The size and
strength of weld is determined by the length of
its leg. For an E60 electrode on A36 steel, the
allowable stress may be computed on the basis of
800 pounds per linear inch per 1/16 inch of leg
size. For A36 steel or higher-strength steels up
to Fy 60 ksi, an E70 electrode should be used
and the the allowable stress may be computed on
the basis of 930 pounds per linear inch per 1/16
inch of leg size.
4.8
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4.8
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4.8.3 TYPES OF WELD FILLET WELD is of
approximately triangular section joining two
surfaces approximately at right angles to each
other. The fillet weld is the most common type of
weld used in structural work. GROOVE WELD is
made by depositing filler material in a groove
between two members to be joined. The standard
types of grooves are square, V, bevel-U, and
J. With the exception of the square groove, all
grooves may be either single or double. PLUG or
SLOT WELD is made of a circular hole (plug) or
an elongated hole (slot) in one member of a lap
joint, joining that member to the portion of the
surface of the other member that is exposed
through the hole.
4.8
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4.8.4 WELD POSITIONS There are four positions
in welding. In order of economy, they are the
flat, horizontal, vertical, and overhead
positions. Overhead welds, which is the most
difficult, should be avoided whenever
possible. 4.8.5 WELD JOINTS The three most
common joints used in structural work are the
butt, T, and lap joints. Other types are the
edge and corner joints. Fillet welds are
applicable to T, lap, and corner joints groove
welds are applicable to all joints with the
exception of lap joints.
4.8
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STANDARD WELDING SYMBOLS
4.8
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WELDING SYMBOLS Examples of use
4.8
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END