English, French, German, and Russian Education

1
English, French, German, and Russian
Education Chapters 17, 18, 19, and
20 Presented by Alma Rangel and Elsa
Barron EDCI 658 October 30, 2006
2
English Education
3
Early Efforts to Combat Illiteracy

• The majority of Englands lower socioeconomic
  classes were illiterate.
• Joseph Lancaster (1778-1838) and Andrew Bell
  (1753-1832) independently developed an
  educational innovation called the "monitorial
  system.
• The method was based by using the older boys
  enrolled in his school as monitors he gave them
  charge of instructing the younger students in the
  basic skills and routine tasks of school
  management.

Joseph Lancaster

• The monitorial schools established by both Bell
  and Lancaster attempted to teach reading,
  writing, and simple arithmetic.
• The method is now commonly known as Learning by
  teaching.

Andrew Bell
4
Factory Reform and Education

• The various developments of English education
  were related to Industrialism. The factory
  system, had been established in England at the
  end of the eighteenth century.
• There was widespread use of child labor in
  English factories, mills, and mines.
• By 1830s, several leaders focused their attention
  against child labour. One of them was Michael
  Sadler, who introduced a bill in Parliament to
  regulate working conditions of child laborers in
  textile mills.

• The strongest opposition to factory reform
  legislation often came from the industrial
  manufacturers, many of whom were prominent
  members of the Liberal party. John Bright is one
  of them, who believed that any governmental
  interference with working conditions violated
  individual liberty and freedom of contract.

5

• In 1833, the first law against child labour, the
  Factory Act of 1833, was passed in England. It
  was an attempt to establish a regular working day
  in the textile industry. Factory inspectors
  supervised the execution of this law.
• The act had the following provisions
• 1. Children under nine were prohibited form
  working in the textile mills.
• 2. Children (ages 9-13) must not work more
  than 9 hours (48 hours per week).
• 3. Young people (ages 13-18) must not work
  more than 10 hours.

Thomas Savage in Wandsworth Prison

• In the 1840s, Legislative acts were passed to
  remedy working conditions. Between those are
  Ashleys Act of 1842, Grahams Factory Act of
  1844, and Fieldens Act of 1847.
• Fieldens Act established a normal working day of
  ten and a half hours for women and for young
  people in factories.

6
Laissez-Faire and Educational Reform

• English elementary education throughout most of
  the nineteenth century was a product of the
  voluntary efforts of private philanthropic and
  religious organization.
• The first significant government efforts in
  education came in 1833 when Parliament provided
  limited national grants to schools.
• In 1862, the Revised Code of Regulations
  inaugurated the schools grant system, popularly
  referred to as payments by results. This system
  of examinations stimulated the emergence of a
  national elementary school system
• According with this Code
• 1. Each child was expected to attain a
  specified level of achievement in the basic
  subjects of reading, writing, and arithmetic by
  the end of each year.
• 2. Each child was to be examined annually to
  determine his or her competency in the required
  subjects.
• 3. The amount of the grant awarded to each
  school was to be calculated according to the
  number of children who passed the examination in
  each of the subjects an by the total number of
  attendance days recorded per child.
• The Educational Department, established earlier
  in 1856, gradually shaped the curriculum as the
  elementary schools came to emphasize success on
  the examinations as a major educational
  objective.
• The elementary schools became a separate track
  with the aim of providing mass literacy rather
  that preparing students for entry into secondary
  schools.

7
Gladstone and Educational Reform

• William Ewart Gladstone (1809-1898) was leader of
  the British Liberal Party and Primer Minister.
• His first term office, from 1868 to 1874, was
  characterized by legislative reforms, among them
  the Foster Act, or Education Act of 1870.
• The Education Act of 1870 set up a Primary School
  system and provide schooling for all children
  between the ages of 5 and 13. The Act laid the
  foundations of English elementary education.

William Ewart Gladstone.

• This legislation divided the country into local
  school districts, under the jurisdiction of
  local, secular school boards, and it authorized
  taxation to establish an maintain elementary
  school.
• As a result of his legislation, the board
  school, jointly supported by local taxes and
  national grants, appeared as a rival to the
  voluntary schools (church schools) which
  received national grants but did not received
  local tax support.
• Although the Act of 1870 did not establish
  completely free and compulsory elementary
  education, it gave impetus to the movement for
  popular education.

8
Secondary Education

• In the nineteenth century, English secondary
  education generally served the needs of the upper
  and middle classes who sent their children to
  private schools.
• The famous public schools, between these
  Winchester, Rugby, St. Pauls etc.., had their
  origins in the classical humanist grammar
  schools, and, proud of their classical
  traditions, they were resistant to change.
  However, some criticism of these institutions did
  make some attempt to modernize and expand the
  curriculum but generally the educational beliefs
  represented a tension between to modernize and to
  maintain the traditional.
• Public schools education reflected the social,
  political, and economic forces that determined
  upper-class behavior. Its values were classical
  and traditional and inclined toward religion,
  patriotism, and manliness.
• Although only slight progress was made in
  changing the patterns of secondary education,
  some limited responses were made to satisfy the
  demands for increased secondary educational
  opportunities.
• The Education Act of 1902 laid the foundation for
  the establishment of a secondary school system.
• The Code of Regulations of 1904 attempted to
  define the relationships and objectives of the
  different types of English schools.
• The elementary schools was to provide for the
  education of the mass of children and was to
  identify children of exceptional ability so that
  they might be properly prepared for secondary
  education.

9
Twenty-Century Developments

• In the twenty century, additional to Liberal and
  Conservative Party, was formed the Labour Party
  (1906).
• In the forefront of the new movement was the
  Fabian Society, founded by a group of
  intellectuals in 1883 to promote a socialized
  democracy. The society laid many of the
  foundations of the Labour Party during this
  period.
• After World War I, the Labour party displaced the
  disintegrating Liberal party (major political
  force particularly in the nineteenth century) as
  one of the two major parties.
• While the old Conservative party remained a major
  force, the Liberals lost support and became a
  small faction in the Parliament.

Clement Attlee

• The greatest success of the Labour party came in
  1945 when Clement Attlee. He was Prime Minister
  of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and
  Northern Ireland from 1945 to 1951. The Labour
  Party under Attlee won a landslide election
  victory over the conservative Winston Churchill,
  immediately after Churchill had led Britain
  through World War II.
• The Attlee government introduces the welfare
  state, based on socialist patterns, to extend
  economic security to all citizens.

10
Education in the Twenty Century

• The Act of 1918, which resulted form the efforts
  of H. A. Fisher, provided for secondary education
  compulsory up to age 14 and gave responsibility
  for secondary schools to the state. Under the
  Act, many higher elementary schools and endowed
  grammar schools sought to become state funded
  central schools or secondary schools. However,
  most children attended primary (elementary)
  school up until age 14, rather than going to a
  separate school for secondary education.
• The concept of streaming has characterized
  English education since the Hadow Report of 1926.
• Brian Simon, an English educational historian,
  defined streaming as the grouping of children of
  a given age into parallel classes on the basis of
  scholastic achievement and intelligence test. The
  objective of it was to form homogeneous groups of
  children of the same age, intelligence level, and
  competence in basic subject so that instruction
  could be gradated according to the capacity of
  the class.
• The Butler Education Act of 1944, introduced
  major innovations into English education. The Act
  divided education into three major stages
  primary, form ages two to eleven secondary, form
  twelve through fifteen and advance schooling.
• The Butter Act also provided for three types of
  secondary schools grammar school, with a college
  preparatory curriculum technical and vocational
  and modern, which provided non-preparatory and
  non-technical general education consisting of
  cultural and work experiences.
• School attendance was made compulsory until age
  fifteen, and provision was made for its later
  extension to sixteen.

11
The Return of Neoconservatism

• In establishing the British social welfare state,
  the Labour Party emphasized the government
  management of the economy through centralized
  social and economic planning and the
  nationalization of key industries such as coal
  and steel production.
• Through such economic centralism, Labour sought
  to create greater equity in British society
  between the socioeconomic classes.
• During the years when Labour formed the
  government, the welfare states progressive
  taxation and welfare state benefits had weakened
  socioeconomic class stratification and
  identification.

Margaret Thatcher

• Margaret Thatcher, who led the Conservatives to
  victory in 1979, alleged that mounting social
  welfare costs had sapped the vigor of the British
  economy and had stifled private initiatives.
• In contrast to the Labour Party, Thatcher urged
  reduce government intervention, privation of
  public enterprises, decreased social welfare
  programs, and lower taxes. She encouraged greater
  privatization in both the economy and in
  education.

12

• The Thatcher government achieved some economic
  successes such as controlling the rate of
  inflation, stimulating economic growth, and
  reducing the national budged deficit.
• The educational initiatives of the Conservative
  government sought to establish a national
  curriculum, encourage initiatives, and forge
  closer links between business and schools.
• Part of a general trend in the Western world
  during the 1980s, the Conservative Thatcher and
  Major governments saw educations results in terms
  of economic productivity.
• The Conservative government has also encouraged
  greater options or choice in education. They
  argue that decentralization will encourage
  greater citizen participation and involvement in
  educational matters.
• While Conservative governments encouraged
  decentralization in school governance, they
  established a more centralized national
  curriculum
• In 1989, the national curriculum was introduced.
• The important demographic and ethnic changes
  occurred in British society in the 1970s and
  1980s have impacted education. The considerable
  immigration form Jamaica, Barbados, Pakistan,
  India, Nigeria, Kenya, and other former colonial
  nations, have developed multicultural education
  that seeks to identify and respect cultural
  differences and styles of learning.

13
French Education
14
The July Monarchy

• The July Monarchy lasted From 1830 to 1848
• It was controlled by upper-middle-class liberal
  capitalists.
• They wanted restricted moderate reforms.
• They believed that the primary function of
  government was to maintain public order.
• Francois Guizot (1787-1874) personified the
  right-wing liberalism of Louis Philippes
  bourgeois monarchy
• Guizot believed that only the upper middle class
  had the talent and intelligence to rule.

Francois Guizot (1787-1874)

• Guizot wrote a number of significant historical
  works. Between those are General History of
  Civilization in Europe (1828), where revealed his
  worldview.
• He opposed both absolutism and popular
  government.
• Guizot also had a remarked preference for French
  and European civilization

15
The Law of 1833

• The law of 1833 established the framework for
  French primary education.
• Each commune in France was to establish a public
  primary school, pay teachers, and provide for a
  school building.
• Free for those who needed.
• The curriculum of primary schools should consist
  of reading, writing, spelling, grammar,
  composition and arithmetic.
• This law showed distrust of religious control of
  schooling.
• Public primary schools were established, but
  Private schools were permitted to function.
• All private teachers were to be certified by the
  mayor of the commune.
• Higher primary schools offering vocational
  education in commercial, agricultural, and
  industrial subjects.
• Separate school systems were to be maintained for
  lower and upper socioeconomic classes.

16
Second French Empire Louis Napoleon

• In 1848, the regime of Louis Philippe was
  overthrown.
• Prince Louis Napoleon Bonaparte was elected
  president of France by popular vote.
• He dissolved the Assembly (1851). In 1852, he was
  proclaimed Napoleon III, Emperor of the French.
• Napoleon III controlled education. In the French
  universities there were substantial opposition to
  his rule.
• In 1850, the Falloux Law was promulgated, which
  gave the Roman Catholic Church control over
  French education.

• Catholic schools were to be given state support.
• Religious teachers of the recognized religions
  Roman Catholic, Protestant, and Jewish-were
  eligible without examination for appointments in
  the public schools.
• The clergy was given power to supervise
  instruction in primary schools.

Napoleon Bonaparte
17
The Third Republic

• After the French armies suffered a crushing
  defeat in the Franco-Prussian War of 1870,
  Napoleon III abdicated and fled to England in
  disgrace.
• France returned to a genuinely republican
  government in what was termed the Third Republic.
• The leading educational direction in the Third
  Republic came from Jules Ferry (1832-1893), who
  sought to modernize French education through a
  series of laws passed in the 1880s.
• In 1881, tuition fees were abolished in primary
  schools.
• In 1882, compulsory attendance was required
  between the ages of six and thirteen.

Jules Ferry (1832-1893)

• In 1886, education was further centralized.
• In order to eliminate religious instruction in
  public education, members of religious
  communities were not allowed to teach in the
  public schools.
• Only the public schools were eligible to receive
  financial support from the state.
• In 1914 all private schools were closed.
• The law was not enforced French private and
  religious schools continued to operate due to the
  World War I.

18
Between the Wars

• Between World War I and World War II France was
  plagued by internal divisions called Three
  Frances
• - The most conservative group was composed of
  aristocrats, landowners, and conservative
  Catholics
• - The middle classes, small landowning
  peasantry, retailers, businessmen, teachers, and
  civil servants formed the second group and
• - The third group consisted of industrial
  workers.
• This threefold division was also reflected in
  French politics, where a host of parties ranging
  from the extreme right to the Communists on the
  far left competed against one another.
• The depression made its greatest impact on France
  after 1934.
• In opposition to the right-wing threat, a popular
  front was formed in 1935 consisting of a
  coalition of Socialists, Radical Socialists, and
  Communists. The popular front won in 1936 it was
  formed by Leon Blum.
• Education enactments between the wars tended to
  consolidate rather than innovate.
• In 1933 the principle of free tuition was
  established for both secondary and technical
  education.
• In 1936 schooling was made compulsory through age
  fourteen. As in other western nations during the
  depression of the 1930s, France had to retrench
  its education expenditure.

19
Vichy France

• When the third republic collapsed before the
  invading German armies in June 1940, this
  reactionary minority emerged under the leadership
  of Marshal Henri Petain.
• Petains government, established at Vichy regime,
  sought to create a semi-fascist corporate state
  in the part of France unoccupied by German
  armies.
• There was underground resistant to both the
  German occupation and to Petains Vichy
  collaborators.
• Petain and Laval established an authoritarian
  regime modeled on fascism, that enacted
  repressive legislation and excluded Freemasons
  and Jews form legal protection.

The prevalence of spying for and against the
Nazis in southern France after the German
invasion.

• Petains government tried to reestablish the old
  order and, with it, traditional education along
  clerical conservative, and classical lines. In
  1941, the paternalistic and authoritarian regime
  of Petain hoped to eradicate permissive, liberal,
  democratic and individualistic attitudes from the
  schools and from French society.
• Petain based his education on the concept of the
  corporate state.
• He felt that industrialism had undermined the
  French craftsmanship. Therefore, basic elementary
  education was to emphasize the manual vocation.
• Political undesirables, Jews, and Freemasons were
  barred from teaching positions.
• After liberation of France, The Vichy regime
  disintegrated.
• Petain was tried for treason by the Fourth
  Republic and imprisoned until his death.

20
France under German Occupation 1940-44
21
French Education After Liberation

• In 1944, Paul Langevin, planed the Postwar reform
  of French education.
• Langevin was succeeded by the psychologist Henri
  Wallon. Both were communists, a fact that
  stimulated opposition to their recommendations
• Their suggested reforms were
• recognition of individual aptitudes and
  differences among children
• the use of guidance so that every child could
  receive the education appropriate to his or her
  talents
• a respect for the dignity of labor.
• In terms of sequence and structure, the Langevin
  -Wallon plan proposed that schooling be available
  for students from ages seven though eighteen.
• The first phase, from ages seven to eleven, would
  emphasize the acquisition of basic skills and
  powers of observation and appreciation.
• The second phase, from eleven through fifteen
  would emphasize guidance so that the student
  could become aware of and consider the various
  career and vocational alternatives.
• The third phase, from fifteen through eighteen,
  the student would determine his or her dominant
  interest and pursue it.
• The Langevin -Wallon proposals were not accepted
  by the National Assembly.
• The Langevin -Wallon recommendations were
  significant, however, in that they indicated the
  direction that French education would take in the
  postwar world.

22
French Education After Liberation

• De Gaulle, in the Fifth Republic, succeeded in
  enacting legislation that strengthened the power
  of the president and the executive branch.
• During the 1960s, students expressed their
  discontent with French secondary and higher
  education.
• University students protests were directed not
  only against the kind of education they were
  receiving but against the prevailing social order
  and the Gaullist regime.
• Although some of the political agitation by
  students was only remotely related to educational
  reform, it was symptomatic of the more pervasive
  discontent of the students with the highly
  centralized and rigorously selective university
  system.

De Gaulle

• As is true in most advanced national, higher
  education is the mean to success and material
  security in France. While the numbers of French
  students seeking entry to universities increased
  in the post-World War II era, the universities
  responded slowly.
• The Ministry of Education in 1968 agreed to
  introduce reforms to permit greater popular
  participation and to encourage more institutional
  autonomy in higher education.
• The critics charged that the Ministry of
  education proposed to retained control of the
  distribution of funds and of faculty
  appointments.
• In 1969, De Gaulle resigned as president and
  retired from public political life.

A May 1968 poster "Be young and shut up.
23
A Partial Turn Leftward

• In 1981, Francoise Mitterrand led a rejuvenated
  Socialist Party to victory in the presidential
  elections and to control in the National
  Assembly.
• Mitterrands government signaled a slight turn to
  the left as it increased social benefits, raised
  the minimum wage, and imposed higher taxes on the
  higher income groups.
• In order to reduce inflation he encouraged more
  privatization and reduced public expenditures.
• In education, one of the persistent issues has
  been that of government aid to religious schools,
  particularly those conducted by the Roman
  Catholic Church.
• Although church-state tensions have diminished
  since World War II, the issue still remains as a
  point of potential conflict.

Francoise Mitterrand

• In 1960, a compromise was effected that provided
  government subsidies to private schools that
  conformed to the state-mandated curricula and
  standards.
• Before, leftist political parties have sought to
  reduce or to eliminate government subsidies to
  the church schools.
• During the 1980s, the socialist government
  proposed reduction in the amount of support for
  church schools.
• This is still a point of conflict.

24
Contemporary Education Structures

• Despite the reforms of French education after
  World War II, it remains a highly centralized
  national system.
• French secondary education remains closely tied
  to the goals of literary expression,
  philosophical understanding, the use of correct
  language, and the power of cultivating abstract
  thought.
• The lyceum, remains the key educational
  institution that prepares one for social,
  economic, and political power. Admission to the
  lycee is highly competitive and its curriculum is
  rigorously.
• Completing the lycee bring the student at age
  eighteen to the examinations for the coveted
  baccalaureate. About 30 percent of the age group
  earn the baccalaureate which entitles them to
  automatic admission to the university.
• A unique feature of French higher education is
  the Grandes Ecoles, the Great Schools, which
  prepare future leadership elites in
  administration, engineering and management.
• -The Ecole Polytechnique provides high
  specialized preparation in engineering,
  technology, and management.
• -The Ecole Normale Superieur is notable by
  the highly academic nature of its curriculum
  designed to prepare a select group of secondary
  teachers for careers in the lycees.
• -The Ecole Nationale dAdministration
  prepares administrators and civil servants for
  upper-level positions in the government.
• These highly prestigious Grandes Ecoles are
  considered even more important than the
  universities.

25
German Education

• In 1808, Johann Gottlieb Fichte called for
  education according to Pestalozzi
• Fichte believed that all Germans should be
  educated in order for the world to be
  progressively better
• Fichte was known as a founding figure of the
  philosophical movement known as German idealism,
  bridges knowledge attained by reason and
  knowledge attained by the senses influenced by
  Immanuel Kant

Johann Gottlieb Fichte
26
Jahn recommended the curriculum to include
patriotic history and literature. Jahn
believed education to include the child's entire
physical and cultural environment. Jahn was a
German Prussian gymnastics educator. He had a
role in forming Burschenschaften, group of young
men who pledged to bring about a united
Germany. 1819 Prince Klemens Metternich In
1819, Prince Klemens Metternich led the decision
that established conservative ideology in the
universities after a journalist was assassinated
by a student during a patriotic festival,
sponsored by the Burschenschaften.
Metternich's full name was Klemens Wenzel Nepomuk
Lothar von Metternich-Winneberg-Beilstein. He
was idolized by Henry Kissinger, who wrote his
dissertation on Metternich's achievements in
holding together the crumbling Austrian Empire
and was published in 1957.
Friedrich Jahn
Also in 1808, Friedrich Jahn had an educational
philosophy which called for a national unity that
would ultimately break down class divisions.
27
From 1817 1838, Prussian education followed
the Hegelian philosophy (Georg Friedrich Hegel)
as a result of being ruled by Baron Karl von
Altenstein, and his supervisor of secondary
schools, Johannes Schulze, fervent disciples of
Hegel. (Prussia was one of five large kingdoms
that was part of the German Confederation,
established in 1789.) Through their vision of
Hegel's philosophy, education meant that 1) the
individual's life acquired meaning only through
complete identification with the state, and 2)
the state was justified in exercising
unrestricted power. Organizational structure
of Prussian education followed socioeconomic
class divisions 90 received a basic education
in Volksschulen, primary vernacular schools, and
10 attended the gymnasium, a college preparatory
school. Those attending teacher training
institutions had the benefits of receiving a
broadened curriculum. Herbartianism Johann
Friedrich Herbart had great impact on German
education. He believed that moral development
was ultimate goal of education. He was known for
the phrase apperceptive mass, a destination
where repeated ideas were lodged, and these ideas
in turn were to be emphasized by the teacher
since Herbart considered these ideas to dominate
a student's life.
28
Herbartian teaching method consisted of five
phases ? preparation prior knowledge ?
presentation actual teaching ? association
compare/contrast ? generalization
formation of a general idea ? application
comprehension Herbartianism was accepted by
other countries, namely Japan and the
U.S.
Around 1870, German kingdoms
were united and as a means of becoming a major
world power, education included the teaching of
nationalistic and patriotic values.
Vocational and adult technical schools became
popular, due to Germany being a leader in
industrialization. This continued through 1918,
and also the two-track system (separation of
lower and higher classes)
Johann Friedrich Herbart
Herbart studied under Fichte. Johann was a
very popular name during the 19th century because
it was the custom to give the child two names,
the first being a Christian name.
29
Mittelschule was established like a middle
school, it came between elementary and secondary
schools attended by children of lower middle
classes Three types of secondary schools 1)
traditional gymnasium prestigious school,
graduates were given preference in university
admissions 2) Realgymnasium more modern
school 3) Oberrealschule emphasized math,
science, and modern languages
Weimar Republic From 1918-1933, Germany was
under the Weimar Republic, and as such continued
to have public and private elementary schools
(with religion now part of curriculum in the
public schools) In addition to elementary and
secondary schools (Gymnasium, Realgymnasium, and
Oberrealschule) a new secondary school,
Aufbauschule, was introduced educate gifted
children from lower classes for entry into
universities
National Assembly convened in the city of
Weimar to produce a new constitution after the
German Empire was abolished following nation's
defeat in WWI. Population - 62,000.
30
Adolf Hitler's Days From 1934-1945, Germany
came under Nazi philosophy fostering of sound,
healthy, and pure Germanic racial stock
development of citizens who were obedient to
authority and accepted responsibilities
dissemination of ordinary and useful culture
A major implementation at the universities was
politicalization (Hitler disfavored
intellectuals, and solely concentrated on
political accomplishments.) Hitler had an
incestual affair with his half-sister's daughter,
Geli Raubal, who was found shot to death (rumored
to have been murdered by Hitler for her
infidelity). Hitler was involved with Eva Braun
for 12 years, married her the day before both
committed suicide.
Around 1946-1960s, Germany was recovering from
Nazi hell, and the 10 German states were given
control of their own state's education. From
1989-1991, states had most direct responsibility
for primary and secondary education, with each
state having a Minister of Education. At this
time, there was an extensive development of
vocational and technical schools, due to
Germany's national economic development
Eva Braun
Geli Raubal
31
German Education Today Grundschule
elementary school, lasts for four or six years,
depending on state (parents have choces for
elementary schools state school, Waldorf
School, Montessori method, Protestant or Catholic
parochial schools) After Grundschule four
options to secondary schooling
Hauptschule least academic, until grade 9
Realschule middle school until grade 10
Gymnasium Grammar school, until grade 12 or
13, with exit exam qualifying for
university Gesamtschule comprehensive
school, with all options of three tracks
above
32
Russian Education
In 1828, Nicholas I established Nicholas
System - stop Russian liberalism by suppressing
people and ideas He favored an education that
called for autocracy, Orthodoxy, and nationalism
Parish schools existed for children of lowest
social classes, and district schools for children
of merchants, townspeople
Nicholas I
In 1864, Alexander II (Nicholas' son) created
zemstvo schools, which provided education in
rural villages and small towns outside of
Russia. Peasants were hesitant to receive
education preferred farm work. From
1881-1917, zemstvos enjoyed popularity and
improved elementary education.
Alexander II
33
Count Leo Tolstoy was significant in Russian
education because of his writings. He opened
school at Yasnaya Polyana, his estate, in 1859.
He proposed to establish a Society of National
Education in order to improve Russian
education. Tolstoy saw education as a morally
creative force advance human community.
Tolstoy married Sophia Behrs, who was 16 years
his junior, and had 13 children with her (five of
whom died). Tolstoy ran up a gambling debt while
at the university, failing academically and
socially. Had an illegitimate son with a married
peasant before marrying Behrs. In 1881,
Alexander III implemented tsarist autocracy
reinforce autocracy, Orthodoxy, and nationalism
(much like Nicholas I in 1828) On Jan. 25,
1905, Bloody Sunday occurred initial event
that led to end of tsarism Lenin's Bolsheviks
took power in 1917, and imposed a Communist
dictatorship in Russia. Nikolai Lenin
supported the implementation of coeducational
working-class schools in 1919 to achieve
economic modernization of the Soviet Union
34
Anatoli Lunacharski Worker's School
reflected Soviet philosophy of a classless
society in which every child would have an
identical education and an opportunity for higher
education Lunacharski borrowed from
Montessori, Dewey, Thorndike theories
Polytechnical education became popular (helped
produce classless society) In 1928, Joseph
Stalin introduced Five-Year Plan, which focused
on industrialization, and school became
authoritarian again. (train scientists,
technicians, and skilled workers) From
1945-53, A. A. Zhdanov implemented Stalinism very
harsh distorted scholarly research In 1956,
Nikita Khrushchev recommended returning to
polytechnical education (vocational schools),
however education in Russia focused on subject
matter disciplines, especially math and
science. In 1970, Russian education aimed to
establish academic skills with some vocational
training
35
In 1985, Mikhail Gorbachev applied principles
of Perestroika, restructuring the Soviet Union
(in education, re-educate the young generation),
and Glasnost, making the country's management
transparent and open for debate, therefore Soviet
people would support Perestroika (in education,
willingness to innovate) In 1991, Gorbachev
faced many difficulties trying to keep a unified
central government that he failed In 1995,
Gorbachev resigned as president of what was
Soviet Union. Gorbachev marked 20 years of
Perestroika in 2005 he resides in Moscow. In
May 2006, a Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) was
signed between the U.S. Dept. of Education and
the Ministry of Education and Science of Russia
Federation to ensure a quality education and
skills to succeed in a global economy. Focus of
agreement is on math, science, information
technology, and foreign languages.
36
Sources http//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adolf_Hitle
r http//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_II_of_Ru
ssia http//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burschenschafte
n http//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friedrich_Jahn ht
tp//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Friedrich_Herbar
t http//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Gottlieb_Fi
chte http//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Klemens_Wensel_
von_Metternich http//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leo_T
olstoy http//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikhail_Gorba
chev http//en.wikipedia/org/wiki/Nicholas_I_of_R
ussia httpen.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stalin
37
Sources httpen.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weimar_Republi
c httpwww.iep.utm.edu/f/fichtejg/htm http//en.
wikipedia.org/wiki/Factory_Acts http//en.wikiped
ia.org/wiki/IndustrialismSocial_effects http//w
ww.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/Britain.html http//
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elementary_Education_Act_187
0 http//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Education_in_Engla
ndVoluntary_aided_.28VA.29_schools http//en.wik
ipedia.org/wiki/Elementary_Education_Act_1870Prin
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_Gladstone http//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Margaret_
Thatcher http//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/July_Monarc
hy