The Indian Philosophy (Various Schools

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TheIndian Philosophy(Various Schools Sankhya)

• Dr Kanchan Saxena

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Schools of Indian Philosophy

• Two schools of Indian Philosophy
• Orthodox System
• (Summarized into six main systems)
• Heterodox System

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Orthodox System

1. Purva Mimansa -Jaimini
2. Uttara Mimansa -Badrayan
3. Vedanta -Kapila
4. Sankhya Yog -Patanjali
5. Nyaya -Gotama
6. Vaisheshika -Kanad

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Orthodox System

• These are called orthodox systems because they
  derive their authorities from Vedas and maintian
  the existence of Atman as independent of body and
  mind.
• Mimansa and Sankhya do not admit of the existence
  of a personal God and in other systems God
  appears in varying roles.

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Nyaya System

• Founded by Gotama also known as Gautama and
  Akshpada.
• It is concerned with conditions of correct
  thinking and means of acquiring true knowledge of
  reality.
• Useful in developing powers of useful thinking
  and criticism.
• Therefore, other names of Nyaya Philosophy are
  Nyaya Vidya, Tarka Shastra and Anvikshi science
  of critical study.

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Literature of Nyaya Philosophy

1. Nyaya Sutra -Gotama
2. Nyaya Bhashya -Vatsyayana
3. Nyaya Vartika -Uddoyotakar
4. Nyaya-Vartika-tatparya-tika -Vachaspati
5. Nyaya-Vartika-tatparya-parishudhi -Udayan
6. Nyaya Kusumanjali-Udayan
7. Nyaya Manjari -Jayanta

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Literature of Nyaya Philosophy (contd..)

• Modern school of Nyaya (Navya Nyaya) begins with
  the epoch making work of Gangesh Upadhyaya i.e.
  the Tatwa Chintamani

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Logical Realism of Nyaya

• It is a system of logical realism. In philosophy
  realism means the theory or doctrine that the
  existence of things or objects of the world are
  independent of all knowledge or relation to mind.
• Nyaya philosophy is divided into four parts,
• - theory of knowledge
• - theory of the physical world
• - theory of individual self and its
  liberation
• - theory of God

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The Nyaya theory of knowledge.

• Knowledge or cognition (Gyana or Buddhi) is the
  manifestation of objects.
• Knowledge is of different kinds,
• - Valid knowledge (Prama or Pramiti)
• sub-divided into perception, inference
  comparison and testimony.
• - Non-valid knowledge (Aprama)
• Includes memory (smriti), doubt (Sanshya),
  error (Bhrama/Viparyyaya) hypothetical
  argument (tarka).

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• Perception
• Gotama defines perception as the knowledge which
  is produced by the intercourse of an object with
  a sense organ undefinable, determinate and in
  harmony with its objects.

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Classification of perception

• Two types of perception -Laukika (ordinary)
• -Alaukika(extra-ordinary)
• Ordinary or Laukika is of three types
• - Indeterminate(Nirvikalpaka)
• - Determinate(Savikalpaka)
• - Pratyabhigna (recognition)
• Extra-ordinary or Alaukika perception,
• - Samanya Lakshna
• - Gyana-Lakshana
• - Yogaj

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Inference

• The classifications of Inference
• Naiyayikas give three different classifications,
• - Svartha and Parartha or for self for others
• - Purvavat, Sheshavat and Samanyatodrsta
• - Kevalanvayi, Kevalvyatireki and Anvaya-
  Anvayatireki

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Upama or comparison

• Upamana is the third source of valid knowledge
  accepted by the Nyaya.
• It is the source of our knowledge of the relation
  between a name and things so named or between a
  word and its denotation.

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Shabda or Testimony

• Shabda is the last pramana accepted by the Nyaya.
• Literally Shabda means verbal knowledge.
• It is the knowledge of objects derived from words
  or sentences.
• All verbal knowledge, however, is not valid.
• Hence Shabda as a pramana is defined in the Nyaya
  as valid verbal Testimony.

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The Vaisheshika Philosophy

• The Vaisheshika system was founded by Kanada. It
  is so named in view of the fact that vishesha a
  category has been elaborately discussed in it.
• The first systematic work of this philosophy is
  the Visheshika-sutra of kanada.
• Prashashtapadas Padartha-Dharma-sangraha
  usually known as the Bhasya, reads like an
  independent exposition of the vaisheshita
  philosophy.

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The Categories (Padartha)

• Kanada brings all objects of valid knowledge
  under six categories,
• - Substance (Dravya)
• - Quality(Guna)
• - Action or Motion (Karma)
• - Generality(Samaanya)
• - Particularity (Vishesha)
• - Inherence (Samvaya)
• Kanad does not mention non-existence or negation
  (Abhava) .

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The Sankhya Philosophy

• The Samkhya system advocates the ontological
  dualism of Prakriti and Purushas (individual
  souls).
• The Sankhya system derives its name from the word
  Sankhya meaning number, since it enumerates the
  metaphysical principles of reality.
• The word sankhya also means perfect knowledge.

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The Sankhya Philosophy (contd..)

• The Sankhya system is the work of a great sage
  Kapila.
• According to tradition, the first work of the
  sankhya school is the Sankhya-Sutra of Kapila.
  
• Ishvarakrishas Sankhya-karika is the earliest
  available authoritative text-book of the
  Sankhya.

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The metaphysics of Sankhya

• The nature of Purusha and Prakriti and their
  relation form the central doctrine of the Sankhya
  philosophy.
• The Sankhya reduction of the numerous
  Categories(especially those of Nyaya-Vaisheshika
  system) into two fundamental categories of
  Purusha and Prakriti for describing the world
  makes the Sankhya philosophy a real advance on
  the theory of atomic pluralism.

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Concept of Prakriti

• Prakriti is the state of equilibrium of Sattva,
  Rajas and Tamas, which are substances and
  constitute prakriti.

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Evolution

• Prakriti is the substratum of the changing
  phenomena of the world. It is the equilibrium of
  sattva, rajas and tamas. it is not a state of
  inactivity, but a kind of tension.
• Prakriti and its evoluates (vikriti) are subject
  to transformations. They can never be deprived of
  their essential nature of modifiability,
  evolution and dissolution.

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Evolution (contd..)

• Prakriti is transformed into mahat or cosmic
  intellect (Buddhi).
• Mahat is transformed into Ahankara or cosmic
  egoism.
• Ahankara is transformed into the eleven sense
  organs, and the five tranmatras or subtle
  essences of sound, touch colour, taste and smell.
• The five subtle essences are transformed into
  five gross elements of sky, air, fire, water and
  earth.
• These are the twenty four principles. In addition
  to these there are purushas.
• These are the twenty five principles according to
  sankhya

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Purusha

• The sankhya advocates the dualism of Prakriti and
  Purusha, they are entirely different from each
  other , because they have opposite
  characteristics.
• Prakriti is composed of sattva, rajas and tamas,
  while Purusha is not composed of them. Prakriti
  is non-discriminating while purushas are
  discriminating.
• Prakriti is an aggregate, while purusha is
  simple. Prakriti is the object of knowledge,
  while purusha is knower. Prakriti is unconscious
  while purusha is conscious.

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Purusha (contd..)

• The Sankhya recognizes the plurality of soul and
  the spiritual unity of each soul.
• The soul is distinct from its material vestment ,
  the body, mind, intellect and egoism. It is
  distinct from prakriti and its effects and devoid
  of sattva, rajas and tamas, it is discriminating,
  simple intelligent, non-productive, uncaused,
  eternal and immutable.
• It is beyond time space and causality. It is the
  conscious knower.

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Liberation and its means

• Liberation consists in absolute cessation of
  pain, which is the highest good.
• Knowledge is the direct means to release. It is
  discrimination of the self from prakriti and its
  evoluted or direct knowledge of the self
  (Pursuha).
• It annihilates suffering.
• It is aided by the practice of eightfold yoga.

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The Yoga Philosophy

• The yoga adopts the Sankhya metaphysics and
  engrafts concept of God upon it. It is called
  theistic Sankhya, while the sankhya system is
  called the atheistic Sankhya.
• The Yoga philosophy is an invaluable gift of the
  great Indian sage Pattanjali to all for spiritual
  realisation.
• It is a great aid to those of the spirit as an
  independent principle, free from all limitations
  of the body, the senses and the mind.

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The Yoga Philosophy (contd..)

• The yoga-sutra of Pattanjali-sutra is the first
  work of this school of philosophy.
• Vyasa wrote a brief but valuable commentry on the
  yoga-sutra called yoga-Bhashya or Vyasa-Bhashya.
• Vachaspatis Tattva-Vaishardi is a reliable sub
  commentary on Vyasas commentary.
• Bhojarajas Vritti and yoga-mainprabha are very
  simple and popular works of the yoga system.
• Vijyanbhikshus yoga-vartika and
  Yoga-sara-sangraha are other useful mannuals of
  the yoga philosophy.

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Meaning of Yoga

• Yoga means the cessation of mental functions or
  modifications (Chittavrittinirodha).
• It odes not mean any kind of contact between the
  individual self and some other reality like God
  or the Absolute.
• The aim of yoga is to prevent the self from
  identifying itself with mental modifications.

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The Eight fold Path of Yoga

• For the purification enlightenment of chitta or
  the mind, Yoga gives us the eightfold means
• Yama or restraint
• Niyama or culture
• Asana or posture
• Pranayama or breath-control
• Pratyahara or withdrawal of the senses
• Dharana or attention
• Dhyana or meditation
• Samadhi or concentration

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• Thank You