Chapter 6. Wild Species and Biodiversity

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Chapter 6. Wild Species and Biodiversity
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An introduction to wildlife and biodiversity

• Puffins are seabirds that live in cold coastal
  waters
• In Maine, hunting and predatory gulls almost
  wiped them out, despite protective laws
• Project Puffin brought birds from Newfoundland in
  the 1970s
• Chicks were installed on Eastern Egg Rock island
• Gulls were removed
• Painted decoys and tapes of puffin calls
  attracted birds
• The island now has 101 pairs of puffins
• Terns, petrels, and albatrosses have also been
  reintroduced

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The value of wild species and biodiversity

• Ecosystem capital all goods and services
  provided to humans by natural systems
• In 2008, capital loss from the worlds financial
  crisis 11.5 trillion
• Capital loss from ecosystem degradation 24.5
  trillion
• The basis of ecosystem capital ecosystems
• The basis of ecosystems wild species
• To maintain ecosystem sustainability, you must
  save ecosystem integrity, resilience, processes,
  biodiversity

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Attitudes toward wildlife stem from values

• Not everyone agrees on types of protection for
  wildlife, even if they agree that wildlife should
  be protected
• Some want wildlife protected for hunting
• Others feel hunting should be banned
• Many think loss of biodiversity is a tragedy
• People in developing countries use wildlife for
  food or money
• How can different values be reconciled to
  sustainably mange wildlife

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Biological wealth

• Two million species have been examined, named,
  classified
• Out of 530 million species
• Biological wealth biota plus their ecosystems
• Makes up most ecosystem capital that sustains
  humans
• Represents a major part of a countrys total
  wealth
• Biodiversity richness, genetic diversity, and
  ecosytem health of living species

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Humans have always used wild species

• 12,000 years ago, humans started converting
  forests, savannas, and plains to fields and
  pastures
• As human populations grew and culture developed
• Species were exploited to extinction
• Others disappeared as their habitats were
  destroyed
• Between 1642 and 2001, 631 North American species
  and subspecies went extinct
• We have been drawing down our biological wealth
  with unknown consequences

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We still depend on biological wealth

• Many Americans dont see the connection between
  everyday life and nature
• In developing countries
• People draw sustenance and income from nature
• Environmental income sustains them and gives them
  wealth
• People also draw down their biological wealth
• The way we regard and value nature is a root
  cause of this problem

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Two kinds of value

• In the 19th century, hunters slaughtered wildlife
• Bison, passenger pigeons, egrets, and other
  shorebirds
• Appalled naturalists called for ending the
  slaughter
• The U.S. public became sensitized
• People saw species as worth preserving
• Why shouldnt we hunt species to extinction?
• Wild species have some value that makes it
  essential to preserve them
• By identifying this value we can assess our moral
  duties to species

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The extinct passenger pigeon
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The value of wildlife

• Instrumental value a species or organisms
  existence or use benefits some other entity
• Food, shelter, source of income
• Usually anthropocentric beneficiaries are humans
• We preserve species to enjoy the benefits they
  provide
• Intrinsic value something has value for its own
  sake
• It does not have to be useful to us
• Do animals have rights? Or are they simply
  property?
• Many people believe only humans have intrinsic
  value
• There is no reason to preserve insignificant
  species

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Species have value as sources for materials

• Most food comes from agriculture
• Wild populations have traits for competitiveness,
  resistance to parasites, tolerance to adverse
  conditions
• Agricultural populations have lost these traits
• A cultivar (cultivated variety) a highly
  selected strain of the original species
• Has minimal genetic variation
• Produces outstanding yields in specific
  conditions
• Can not adapt to other conditions

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Wild genes

• Plant breeders comb wild populations of related
  species for desired traits
• To maintain vigor in cultivars
• To adapt them to different conditions
• Traits from the natural biota are introduced into
  cultivars by crossbreeding or biotechnology
• Genes can come only from natural biota
• If wild populations are lost, options for
  improved food plants are greatly reduced

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New food plants

• Potential for developing new cultivars is lost if
  wild populations are destroyed
• Out of the hundreds of thousands of plants
  species
• Humans use only 7,000 species
• Three species (wheat, maize, rice) provide 50 of
  global food demands
• Modern plants can not produce under many
  environmental conditions
• 30,000 plant species could be cultivated
• For example, every part of the winged bean is
  edible

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Winged bean, a legume of New Guinea
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Wood and other raw materials

• Animal husbandry, forestry, and aquaculture also
  select species from nature
• Three billion people use wood for heating and
  cooking
• Demand for wood is increasing
• Scientists are predicting a timber famine or
  fuelwood crisis
• Rubber, oils, nuts, fruits, spices, and gums also
  come from forests
• All are valuable for humans

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Banking genes

• Genetic bank living things are a bank of the
  gene pools of all living species
• Wild relatives of cultivated crops are being
  preserved
• Englands Millennium Seed Bank has 1 billion
  seeds
• Norways Svalbard Global Seed Vault holds seeds
  as a backup for other seed banks
• Zoos act as genetic banks for animals
• The United Kingdoms Frozen Ark Project collects
  cells and DNA from species likely to go extinct
• Genetic diversity is preserved while we try to
  slow extinction

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Species have value as sources for medicine

• Madagascars rosy periwinkle has revolutionized
  treatment of childhood leukemia and Hodgkins
  disease (cancer of lymph nodes)
• The Chinese star anises fruit is used in
  Tamiflu, an effective treatment of the flu virus
• Taxol from the Pacific yew tree treats ovarian,
  breast, and small-cell cancers
• Ethnobotany studies relationships between plants
  and people
• 3,000 plants have anticancer properties
• Search for beneficial drugs has helped create
  parks
• Bioprospecting studies indigenous peoples use
  of plants

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The rosy periwinkle
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Species have recreational, aesthetic, and
scientific value

• Species provide recreational and aesthetic
  interests
• Hunting, sportfishing, hiking, camping,
  bird-watching
• In 2001, 202 million Americans were involved in
  some form of outdoor recreation
• Attitudes reflect interest in and concern for the
  environment
• Contact with the outdoors sensitizes people
• Broad public support for wildlife and habitat
  stems from aesthetic and recreational enjoyment

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Recreational, aesthetic, and scientific uses
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Values support commercial interests

• Recreational and aesthetic values support
  commercial interests
• In 2006, 87.5 million U.S. adults participated in
  wildlife-centered recreation (e.g.,
  bird-watching, hunting)
• Generated 2.6 million jobs and 108 million
• Ecotourism tourists visit a place to observe
  wild species or unique ecological sites
• It is the largest foreign exchange-generating
  enterprise for many developing countries
• Environmental degradation affects commercial
  interests

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A cautionary note

• Using wild species and biodiversity causes
  problems
• Little money from the rosy periwinkles success
  went back to Madagascar, a very poor country
• Large companies have patented ancient herbal
  remedies
• But indigenous people may not benefit
• Ecotourism may bring money to poor countries
• It increases pollution, harms wildlife, changes
  cultures
• Whale-watching boats disrupt whale feeding
• Tourist boats frighten flamingoes and reduce
  their feeding

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The loss of instrumental value

• Biodiversity loss has tremendous negative effect
  on the world
• The Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversitys
  (TEEB) 2008 report detailed the economic and
  life-quality effects of biodiversity loss
• Loss of biodiversity and ecosystem services 78
  billion/yr

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Species have value for their own sake

• The usefulness (instrumental value) of species is
  obvious
• But its not enough to protect many species
• Some species have no obvious value
• Another strategy emphasize the intrinsic value
  of species
• Extinction is an irretrievable loss of something
  valuable
• The existence of a species means it has a right
  to exist
• Living things have ends and interests of their
  own
• Destroying species is like tearing pages out of
  an unread book
• Humans have a responsibility to the natural world

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Religious support for intrinsic value

• Jewish and Christian traditions show Gods
  concern for wild species
• God declared his creation was good and blessed it
• All wild things have intrinsic value and deserve
  care
• The Islamic Quran (Koran) says the environment is
  Allahs creation and should be protected
• Native American religions have a strong
  environmental ethic
• Hindu philosophy has strong grassroots
  environmentalism
• Religions represent a potentially powerful force
  for preserving biodiversity

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The land ethic

• Aldo Leopolds 1949 essay The Land Ethic
  described an ethic about preservation of
  ecosystems
• Leopold understood the importance of fire and
  predators in maintaining ecosystem health
• He advocated for protection of wilderness
• He also advocated better care of human-dominated
  land
• In his book A Sand County Almanac, Leopold said,
  A thing is right when it tends to preserve the
  integrity, stability, and beauty of the biotic
  community. It is wrong when it tends otherwise.

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Biodiversity and its decline

• Biodiversity includes genetic diversity in
  species as well as the diversity of species, and
  ecosystems
• Two measures calculate species diversity
• The number of species or richness
• How even the species are
• A habitat has low diversity if it is dominated by
  one species with few members of other species
• Diversity is higher if dominance of any one
  species is low

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How many species?

• Most people are unaware of the great diversity of
  species
• Groups that are rich in species flowering plants
  and insects
• Conspicuous or commercially important groups are
  more explored and described
• Birds, mammals, fish, flower- and cone-bearing
  trees
• Fully exploring biodiversity would require a
  major effort
• Estimates continue to rise as rain forests are
  explored

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The decline of biodiversity

• Biodiversity is declining in the United States
  and around the world
• Endemic species are found only in one habitat
• They are especially at risk
• Some areas are very vulnerable to species loss
• These are the focus of special conservation
  efforts
• North America, although well-studied, is still
  not well-known
• At least 500 species (100 vertebrates) have gone
  extinct
• One-third of species are vulnerable, imperiled,
  or extinct

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North America

• Species in freshwater habitats are at greatest
  risk
• Mussels, crayfish, fishes, amphibians
• The American southeast has the greatest diversity
  of any freshwater bivalve (mussels, clams) group
• Species populations are more important than a
  species existence
• Populations contribute to biological wealth
• Declines of well-studied species populations are
  occurring
• Fish, amphibians, songbirds
• More than 25 of North American birds are
  declining

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The state of U.S. species
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Global outlook

• The global loss of biodiversity is disturbing
• The background (past) extinction rate is less
  than one extinction every thousand years for
  mammals
• Except for the five great extinction events
• Current extinction rate 1001,000 times greater
  than past rates
• For mammals and birds 2025 species per 100
  years
• Rates for all groups 850 species over 500 years
• 23 of mammal species and 12 of bird species are
  threatened

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Species extinction rates
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Most threatened species are in the tropics

• The tropics have almost unimaginable biodiversity
• 43 species of ants occur on one tree in Peru
• Equal to all ant fauna of the British Isles
• 300 species of trees on a 1-ha (2.5-acre) plot
• 1,000 species of beetles on one tree species in
  Panama
• Tropical forests are also experiencing the
  highest rate of deforestation
• The species inventory is so incomplete its
  almost impossible to assess extinction rates

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Reasons for the decline

• Past extinctions were caused by climate change,
  plate tectonics and asteroid impacts
• Current threats to biodiversity are described by
  HIPPO
• Habitat destruction
• Invasive species
• Pollution
• Population
• Overexploitation

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Biodiversity loss in the developing world

• Future losses in biodiversity will be greatest in
  the developing world
• Biodiversity is greatest
• So is human population growth
• Asia and Africa have lost two-thirds of their
  original natural habitat
• Peoples desire for a better life
• Desperate poverty
• Global market for timber and other resources

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Habitat change conversion

• The greatest source of biodiversity loss (36)
• Conversion, fragmentation, simplification,
  intrusion
• Species are adapted to specific habitats
• When the habitat changes, the species goes with
  it
• Conversion of natural areas to farms, housing,
  malls, marinas, industrial centers
• Forest cover has been reduced by 40
• North American songbird declines are due to loss
  of winter habitat and fragmentation of summer
  habitat
• Croplands that replace grasslands support few
  species

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The border of Haiti (deforested) and the
Dominican Republic
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Habitat change fragmentation

• Natural landscapes have large patches of habitat
  connected to other similar patches
• Human-dominated landscapes consist of a mosaic of
  different land uses
• The patches contrast with neighboring patches
• Fragments of habitat support small numbers and
  populations of species
• Species become vulnerable to extinction
• Species that require large areas, grow slowly, or
  have unstable populations are also vulnerable

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Fragmentation
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Fragmentation edge

• Reducing habitat size increases edge
• Exposing species to predators and nest parasites
• Edge is beneficial to some species but not to
  others
• Kirtlands warbler, an endangered species,
  depends on jack pines in Michigan
• Forests have been fragmented, creating edge
• Brown-headed cowbirds are nest parasites that lay
  their eggs in the warblers nest
• Edge also favors nest predators (crows, magpies,
  jays)

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Habitat change simplification and intrusion

• Simplification humans simplify habitats
• Removing logs and trees changes forest
  microhabitats
• Streams are channelized (straightened), reducing
  fish and invertebrate species
• Intrusion human structures
• Millions of migrating birds crash into
  telecommunication towers
• Cell phone tower lights affect birds migrating at
  night
• Up to a billion birds die each year by crashing
  into windows

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Invasive species

• An exotic (alien) species one that is introduced
  into an area from somewhere else
• Most dont survive or dont become pests
• Invasive species thrives, spreads, and can
  eliminate native species by predation or
  competition
• Accidental introductions the brown tree snake
• Entered Guam on cargo ships
• Within 50 years, it eliminated 9 of 12 bird
  species
• It has no natural enemies
• Wildlife officials are trying to prevent its
  spread

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The brown tree snake
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May I introduce

• Species have been deliberately introduced
• Kudzu to reclaim eroded or degraded lands
• Saltcedar in the American southwest to control
  erosion
• Horticultural desirables the Brazilian pepper in
  Florida has fundamentally changed the Everglades
• Aquaculture the farming of shellfish, seaweed,
  and fish
• Introducing parasites, seaweeds, invertebrates,
  pathogens
• Species escape and enter nearby waterways

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The Brazilian pepper bush (b) invades the natural
marsh (a)
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Over time

• Humans have transplanted species throughout
  history
• European colonists brought weeds and plants to
  America
• Field, lawn, and roadside plants are exotics
• Animals have been introduced to North America
• House mouse, Norway rat, wild boar, starling,
  horse
• The house cat is one of the most destructive
  exotics
• Kills 1 billion small mammals and hundreds of
  millions of birds
• Species transplanted from North America cause
  problems
• Gray squirrels outcompete red squirrels in Europe

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Gray squirrels outcompete red squirrels in Europe
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Pollution kills or reduces populations

• Agricultural nitrogen and phosphorus enter the
  Mississippi River, creating a 10,000 square mile
  dead zone in the Gulf of Mexico
• It destroys or alters habitats
• Oil spills kill seabirds and sea mammals
• Pesticides (DDT) travel up the food chain and
  become more concentrated in higher consumers
• Sediments kill species in lakes, rivers, and bays
• Climate change is already impacting species like
  polar bears

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Pollution can spread disease

• Pathogen pollution human wastes can spread
  pathogenic microorganisms to wild species
• Manatees have been killed by human viruses and
  bacteria
• Deformities in amphibians result from the larval
  stage of a flatworm invading tadpoles
• High nutrient pollution led to large snail
  populations
• Snails are intermediate hosts of the flatworm

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Population

• Human populations put pressure on species
• Direct use, habitat conversion, pollution
• Large numbers of humans use resources wild
  species need
• Even if each person uses small amounts of
  resources
• A small group of people can overuse resources
• People with highly consumptive resources have a
  disproportionate effect on the environment
• Different levels of consumption and numbers of
  people drive tensions between countries

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Overexploitation trade in exotics

• Overexploitation overharvest of a particular
  species
• Removing individuals faster than they can
  reproduce
• Overuse of species harms ecosystems
• Driven by greed, ignorance, desperation, poor
  management
• Overcutting forests, overgrazing, overhunting,
  etc.
• Trade in exotics much trade is illegal
• Illegal trade generates 12 billion/yr, the third
  largest source after drugs and guns
• Consumers pay huge prices for luxuries (e.g.,
  polar bear rugs)

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Illegal wildlife trade

• Some parrots sell for 10,000
• A panda skin rug sells for 25,000
• Shahtoosh shawls come from wool of the Tibetan
  antelope
• A must-have luxury item for the wealthy
• It takes three dead antelopes to make one shawl
• 20,000 Tibetan Antelope were killed/year and
  their numbers plummeted
• Retraining Kashmiri weavers and providing them
  with other wools and public court cases made them
  less popular

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Shahtoosh shawl and Tibetan antelope
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Overexploitation greed

• The prospect of extinction does not stop
  exploiters
• Huge profits drive poaching and the black market
  trade
• Exotic pets (fish, reptiles, birds) are taken
  from the wild
• Most do not survive the transition
• Do not buy wild-caught species
• The U.S. 1992 Wild Bird Conservation Act
• Stops wild capture of declining birds, upholds
  treaties, and supports sustainable breeding
  programs
• In 2007, the European Union (EU) prohibited
  importing wild birds

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Consequences of losing biodiversity

• Biodiversity is essential for ecosystem goods and
  services
• Mangroves and coral reefs buffer against storms
• Ecotourism depends on biodiversity
• Energy flow and nutrient cycling are driven by
  species
• Keystone species species whose role is vital to
  survival of other species
• Predators control herbivores
• Umbrella species larger animals that need
  unspoiled habitat (wolves, elephants, tigers,
  moose, etc.)

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K-strategists are at most risk

• Many declining species are K-strategists
• Long-living, large, older at first reproduction,
  high parental care
• Vulnerable to rapid environmental change
• Can decline even if they are common
• R-strategists are less likely to be harmed by
  humans
• Widely distributed, small, rapid reproduction,
  low parental care, ability to migrate
• Likely to become pest species

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Saving wild species conservation biology

• Scientists are at the front lines of protecting
  biodiversity
• They know what is out there and what is declining
• Stopping biodiversity losses requires laws and
  enforcement
• People need to look at the big picture
• Conservation biology focuses on protection of
  populations and species
• Uses captive breeding, telemetry, and tracking
  devices
• Taxonomy the cataloging and naming of species
• Understanding species and identifying those in
  trouble
• A lack of experts makes it hard to find solutions

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Game animals in the United States

• Game animals are hunted for sport, meat, pelts
• Species were hunted to extinction (great auk,
  heath hen, passenger pigeon) or near extinction
  (bison, turkey)
• Regulations established hunting seasons and
  limits
• Some species were given complete protection
• Turkey boom turkeys have recovered
• After World War II, habitats were protected
• Birds were reintroduced to historic habitats
• Hunting quotas were strictly limited

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The wild turkey
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Hunting and conservation

• Managers use hunting and trapping fees to enhance
  habitats
• Organizations raise funds to help species they
  want to hunt
• Defenders of hunting argue that their prey lack
  predators
• Increased prey eat crops, collide with cars, etc.
• Hunters may think species are declining but
  others think numbers are too high
• Others want to end hunting and trapping
• Some practices (leghold steel traps) are cruel
• Predators would restore natural checks and
  balances

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Backyard menagerie

• Many animal species are found in urban and
  suburban areas
• Rabbits, doves, squirrels are well-adapted
• They are protected from hunting
• Problems have emerged
• Roadways kill a million animals each day
• This presents a hazard to drivers, too
• Overpasses and tunnels provide safe corridors
• Amphibians are at most danger

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Highway overpasses
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Nuisance animals thrive in urban areas

• Opossums, skunks, and deer are attracted by food
• Creating health hazards (e.g., rabies)
• Humans may be attacked by cougars, bears,
  alligators
• Urbanization is encroaching on wildlife habitat
• Coyotes eat pets and garbage
• Protecting predators and humans is part of our
  stewardship task
• Wildlife Services (formerly Animal Damage
  Control) removes (kills) 2.5 million animals/yr

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Cougar on the roof
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Endangered Species Act (1973)

• Endangered species in imminent danger of
  becoming extinct if it is not protected
• Includes genetically distinct subpopulations
  (subspecies)
• Threatened species in jeopardy but not yet
  endangered
• An officially recognized endangered or threatened
  species
• Fines are levied for killing, trapping, uprooting
  (plants), or engaging in commerce
• Administered by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife
  Service and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric
  Administration Fisheries Service

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Endangered species
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Elements of the Endangered Species Act

• Listing by the appropriate agency, individuals,
  groups, state agencies
• Based on the best available information
• Does not include any economic impact of listing
• Critical habitat areas where a species is or
  could spread as it recovers
• Includes privately held lands
• Recovery plans designed to allow listed species
  to survive and thrive
• Developed by the appropriate agency

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Numbers and roadblocks

• By August, 2008, 1,327 species were listed for
  protection
• 1,170 have recovery plans
• 526 species have designated critical habitat
• 253 other candidate species are waiting to be
  listed
• Timber, recreational, mining, and other groups
  oppose it
• They believe it limits their property rights
• Congressional allies sponsor legislation to
  weaken or abolish the Endangered Species Act

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Conflicting values

• Critics say the Endangered Species Act is a
  failure
• Only 10 species have recovered and been delisted
• But this is not a true measure of success
• The two major causes of extinction (habitat loss
  and invasive species) are increasing
• Only critically low species are listed
• 41 of species have stabilized or increaseda
  success
• Some critics say the act does not go far enough
• Protection only occurs with listing and a
  recovery plan
• Candidate species go extinct before being listed

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Future legislation

• Many political and commercial groups want to
  weaken the Endangered Species Act
• In 2006, 6,000 scientists signed a letter to the
  Senate urging them to maintain and strengthen the
  act
• The Endangered Species Act formally recognizes
  the importance of preserving species
• Regardless of their economic importance
• Species have legal rights to protection
• Tax breaks and incentives to landowners may help
• The Endangered Species Recovery Act (ESRA) (2007)

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The American bald eagle is no longer listed
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Fly away home

• The whooping crane has had full-time monitoring
  and protection
• From 14 cranes in 1939, 266 cranes now exist
• The migratory flock flies between Texas and
  Canada
• A nonmigratory flock has been established in
  Florida
• 72 birds make up a new Florida-Wisconsin
  migratory flock
• They were taught their migratory path by
  following an ultralight aircraft
• This flock is still extremely vulnerable

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Whooping cranes and pilot
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The spotted owl

• Critics of the Endangered Species Act say it goes
  too far to protect a species
• The northern spotted owl was used to save some
  remaining old-growth forests of the Pacific
  Northwest
• The remaining 2,400 pairs are found only in these
  forests
• The Northwest Forest Plan (1994) uses ecosystem
  management to set aside federal land
• Prohibits logging trees older than 80 years
• Fish and Wildlife Service finished a recovery
  plan for the spotted owl in 2008

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Protecting biodiversity internationally

• Efforts are being made worldwide to protect
  species
• Especially in the tropics
• Requires immense cooperation among local, state,
  and federal authorities
• The National Biological Information
  Infrastructure helps the U.S. coordinate with the
  rest of the world
• Partnerships create treaties and groups like the
  International Union for Conservation of Nature
  (IUCN)
• Monitors successes and failures of conservation
  efforts

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The Red List

• Maintained by the IUCN for threatened species
• Evaluates the risk of extinction for thousands of
  species
• Frequently updated and available on the Internet
• In 2008, it had 16,928 species
• Each species is classified
• Given its distribution, documentation, habitat,
  ecology, conservation measures, and data sources
• Not actively engaged in preserving species
• It is the basis of conservation activities
• Provides crucial leadership

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CITES

• Convention on International Trade in Endangered
  Species of Wild Fauna and Flora
• Established in the early 1970s
• An international agreement focusing on trade and
  wildlife
• The highest level of vulnerability species
  threatened with extinction
• Uses restrictive trade permits
• If the nations agree, there is a ban on trade
• The signatory countries meet every 23 years

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The ban on the trade in ivory

• Implemented in 1989 to stop the rapid decline of
  the African elephant
• Fell from 2.5 million in 1950 to 470,000 in 2008
• Some countries have applied to CITES to resume
  ivory sales
• Each time sales restart, poaching resumes
• Any plan to protect elephants must enable people
  to manage wildlife without overexploitation

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Critical ecosystem partnership fund

• Sponsored by multiple entities and foundations
• Provides grants to NGOs and community-based
  groups for conservation activities in
  biodiversity hot spots
• Hot spots are 34 regions making up 2.3 of
  Earths land surface
• Contain 75 of the most threatened species
• By 2008, the fund had provided 102 million
• 1,300 partners to work on preserving biodiversity
  in these hot spots

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Biodiversity hot spots