REKAYASA GENETIKA DAN MOLEKUL KEHIDUPAN

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REKAYASA GENETIKADANMOLEKUL KEHIDUPAN

• BAB 12

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Pokok Bahasan

• The Chemistry of Heredity
• The Double Helix of DNA
• Cracking the Chemical Code
• Protein Structure and Activity Form and
  Function
• The Human Genome Project
• Genetically Engineered Medical Treatments
• Genetically Engineered Agriculture
• Cloning Mammals and Humans
• The New Prometheus?

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The Chemistry of Heredity(Kimia Keturunan)
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Konsep Dasar Genetik
Human Genome - 10 million million (10x1012)
cells with a nucleus - each cell has a
complete set of genetic instructions to
make another you(biologically) - 23 pairs of
chromosomes - 100,000 genes - defn totality
of human hereditary information in molecular form
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Konsep Dasar Genetik

• Human genome adalah sekumpulan informasi genetik
• pada manusia
• Yang terdiri atas
• Berjuta-juta cell dengan intinya ( 10 x 1012 )
• Tiap-tiap cell memiliki sekumpulan perintah
  genetik untuk
• membuat cell yang baru (membuat keturunan
  baru)
• 23 pasangan khromosom
• 100.000 gene rangkaian DNA (deoxyribonucleic
  acid)
• Informasi lengkap keturunan manusia dalam bentuk
  
• molekular

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Genome, the total genetic information possesed by
an organism
Human genome adalah informasi genetik pada manusia
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DNA

DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) molecule that
carries genetic information in all species -
DNA of one cell unraveled 2 meters long 3
parts to DNA (i) Phosphate group (ii) Sugar
(deoxyribose) (iii) Nitrogen bases
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DNA

Put all 3 groups together, called a nucleotide
Adenosine phosphate
A DNA molecule consists of thousands of
nucleotides put together in a long chain (left)
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The percenst base composition of DNA for various
species
Species Common Name Adenine Thymine Guanine Cytosine
Homo sapiens Human 31.0 31.5 19.1 18.4
Drosophila melanogaster Fruit fly 27.3 27.6 22.5 22.5
Zea mays Corn 25.6 25.3 24.5 24.6
Neuspora crassa Mold 23.0 23.3 27.1 26.6
Escherichia coli Bacterium 24.6 24.3 25.5 25.6
Bacillus subtillis Bacterium 28.4 29.0 21.0 21.6
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The Double Helix of DNA
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X-Ray Diffraction of DNA

• J. Watson F. Crick
• 1962 Nobel in Chemsitry

• R. Franklin

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DNA

Turns out that Adenine bonds with
Thymine Guanine binds with Cytosine Called
complementary bases AT GC
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DNA Double Helix


DNA is double stranded and is shaped like a
spiral staircase. Ex. What is the complementary
strand of DNA for the following sequence ATAGCCG
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DNA Replication


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Cracking the Chemical Code
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DNA Blueprint of Life?

How does DNA provide genetic information, where
does the information come from?
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DNA Blueprint of Life?

How does DNA provide genetic information, where
does the information come from?
Key is in the sequences of nitrogen bases.
DNA blueprint for making proteins
Proteins made up of amino acids consist of/or
regulate everything in the chemistry of life
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DNA to Proteins

OK, the instructions are in the sequence of
bases. There are 20 amino acids How many bases
encode for an amino acid?
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DNA to Proteins

OK, the instructions are in the sequence of
bases. There are 20 amino acids How many bases
encode for an amino acid?
if it were 1 base 1 amino acid, then there
would only be 4 amino acids found in proteins.
There are up to 20 amino acids found in proteins.
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DNA to Proteins

OK, the instructions are in the sequence of
bases. There are 20 amino acids How many bases
encode for an amino acid?
if it were 1 base 1 amino acid, then there
would only be 4 amino acids found in proteins.
There are up to 20 amino acids found in proteins.
if it were 2 42 16, not enough
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DNA to Proteins

OK, the instructions are in the sequence of
bases. There are 20 amino acids How many bases
encode for an amino acid?
if it were 1 base 1 amino acid, then there
would only be 4 amino acids found in proteins.
There are up to 20 amino acids found in proteins.
if it were 2 42 16, not enough
3 bases 43 64
3 bases codon
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Codon table
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DNA to Proteins

Transcription DNA to mRNA Translation mRNA to
protein
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Protein Structure and Activity Form and Function
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Polypeptide Backbone
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Protein structure

• The peptide bond allows for rotation around it
  and therefore the protein can fold and orient the
  R groups in favorable positions
• Weak non-covalent interactions will hold the
  protein in its functional shape these are weak
  and will take many to hold the shape

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Secondary structures

• 2 regular folding patterns have been identified
  formed between the bonds of the peptide backbone
• ?-helix protein turns like a spiral fibrous
  proteins (hair, nails, horns)
• ?-sheet protein folds back on itself as in a
  ribbon globular protein

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Tertiary structure

• The overall fold result in increase in stability
• The shape is maintained through H-bond,
  intermolecular ionic and covalent bond and
  interactions of amino acid residues with water

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Protein function

• Enzymes, exp chymotrypsin
• Structural, exp collagen, hair
• Transport hemoglobin
• etc

• Sickle cell anemia differs from normal blood cell
  due to replacement of hemoglobin amino acid two
  glutamic acid by valine
• Hemoglobin is a transport protein

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The Human Genome Project
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What is the Human Genome Project?

• International effort to map all gene in human
  organism
• Started in 1989 lead by J. Watson
• Finished June 26, 2000 (co-announced by President
  Bill Clinton and PM Tony Blair)
• Definition GENOME the whole hereditary
  information of an organism that is encoded in the
  DNA.
• Aims of the project
• to identify the approximate 100,000 genes in the
  human DNA.
• determine the sequences of the 3 billion bases
  that make up human DNA.
• store this information in databases.
• develop tools for data analysis.
• address the ethical, legal, and social issues
  that arise from genome research.

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Whose genome is being sequenced?

• the first reference genome is a composite genome
  from several different people.
• generated from 10-20 primary samples taken from
  numerous anonymous donors across racial and
  ethnic groups.

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Benefits of Human Genome Project research

• improvements in medicine.
• microbial genome research for fuel and
  environmental cleanup.
• DNA forensics.
• improved agriculture and livestock.
• better understanding of evolution and human
  migration.
• more accurate risk assessment.

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Genetically Engineered Medical Treatment
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Recombinant DNA manipulating gene pools

Cut out DNA that encodes for human
insulin Splice it into E. Coli plasmid
(DNA) Ecoli reads DNA and starts making
insulin. Human Growth Hormone (HGH)
previously, a 1 year supply required harvesting
the pituitary glands from 80 human cadavers
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• DNA recombinant technology offers many
  biocatalysis
• Greener reaction condition

• Atorsvastatin produced from (R)-4-cyano-3-hydroxyb
  utyrate which was produced by process using
  biocatalyst (enzyme)
• The enzyme was a product of DNA recombinant

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Genetically Engineered Agriculture
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Transgenic plants (organisms)

• Artificially created higher plants and animals
  that share the genes of another species
• The focus of development
• Improve production stability
• Give nutritional benefits to the consumer
• Reduce environmental effect of intensive and
  extensive agriculture
• Increase the availability of pharmaceutical and
  vaccines

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How to create transgenic plants
Agrobacterium tumefaciens
Plant cell
DNA containing gene for desired trait
Ti plasmid
Recombinant Ti plasmid
Insertion of gene into plasmid using restriction
enzyme and DNA ligase
Introduction into plant cells in culture
Regeneration of plant
T DNA
T DNA carrying new gene within plant chromosome
Plant with new trait
Restriction site
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• Nitrogen fixing corn, corn that capable in fixing
  N2
• Contain nitrogen fixing bacterial genes

• Transgenic soybeans which is resistance to
  herbicides

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Mixing Genes Transgenic Organisms

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Cloning Mammals and Humans
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Do you know these movies?

• Jurassic Park The Lost World The Boys from
  Brazil Sleeper. Multiplicity Invasion of the
  Body Snatchers Stepford Wives A Stolen Life
  Clones The Clones of Bruce Lee Blade Runner
  Star Wars. Judge Dredd American Ninja 2 Twins
  Gattaca Alien Resurrection

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Nuclear transfer/ Somatic cell nuclear transfer

• (A, B) nucleus is sucked of cell
• (C) New nucleus is picked up
• (D) Nucleus/DNA is inserted into the egg

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Dolly, 1996-2003
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Snuppy, 2005
Snuppy and his surrogate mother

• Snuppy and his father

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Human cloning

• Many reports said the success of the somatic
  nuclear transfer
• After electrical jolt, the embryo started growing
• No report of embryo development to human
• The intention of researcher is to harvest stem
  cell

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The New Prometheus?
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• We have found key natural compounds of life DNA
• We have clone gene and took many advantage for
  human being
• We have clone animals
• Next logical step would be creating new organism
  or cloning human the super one
• However we could not removed defective gene from
  the pools
• And cloning or creating superman could end up
  with creating a new promatheus

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Thank you