Data communications and networks Telecommunications 2

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Data communications and networksTelecommunication
s (2)

• Computers in Business
• Foundation Year

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Analog Signaling

• represented by sine waves

phase difference
1 cycle
amplitude (volts)
time
(sec)
frequency (hertz)
cycles per second
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Digital Signaling

• represented by square waves or pulses

1 cycle
amplitude (volts)
time
(sec)
frequency (hertz)
cycles per second
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Digital Text Signaling

• Transmission of electronic pulses representing
  the binary digits 1 and 0
• How do we represent letters, numbers, characters
  in binary form?
• Earliest example Morse code (dots and dashes)
• Most common current form ASCII

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ASCII Character Codes

• Use 8 bits of data (1 byte) to transmit one
  character
• 8 binary bits has 256 possible outcomes (0 to
  255)
• Represents alphanumeric characters, as well as
  special characters

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ASCII Character Set
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Why Study Analog?

• Telephone system is primarily analog rather than
  digital (designed to carry voice signals)
• Low-cost, ubiquitous transmission medium
• If we can convert digital information (1s and 0s)
  to analog form (audible tone), it can be
  transmitted inexpensively

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Voice Signals

• Easily converted from sound frequencies (measured
  in loudness/db) to electromagnetic frequencies,
  measured in voltage
• Human voice has frequency components ranging from
  20Hz to 20kHz
• For practical purposes, the telephone system has
  a narrower bandwidth than human voice, from 300
  to 3400Hz

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Bandwidth

• Width of the spectrum of frequencies that can be
  transmitted
• if spectrum300 to 3400Hz, bandwidth3100Hz
• Greater bandwidth leads to greater costs
• Limited bandwidth leads to distortion
• Analog measured in Hertz, digital measured in baud

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BPS vs. Baud

• BPSbits per second
• Baud of signal changes per second
• Each signal change can represent more than one
  bit, through variations on amplitude, frequency,
  and/or phase

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Transmission Media

• the physical path between transmitter and
  receiver
• design factors
• bandwidth
• attenuation weakening of signal over distances
• interference
• number of receivers

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Impairments and Capacity

• Impairments exist in all forms of data
  transmission
• Analog signal impairments result in random
  modifications that impair signal quality
• Digital signal impairments result in bit errors
  (1s and 0s transposed)

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Transmission Impairments

• Attenuation
• loss of signal strength over distance
• Attenuation Distortion
• different losses at different frequencies
• Delay Distortion
• different speeds for different frequencies
• Noise

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Types of Noise

• Thermal (aka white noise)
• Uniformly distributed, cannot be eliminated
• Intermodulation
• within different frequencies
• Crosstalk
• Impulse noise
• Less predictable

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Transmission Media

• two major classes
• conducted or guided media
• use a conductor such as a wire or a fiber optic
  cable to move the signal from sender to receiver
• wireless or unguided media
• use radio waves of different frequencies and do
  not need a wire or cable conductor to transmit
  signals

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Guided Transmission Media

• the transmission capacity depends on the distance
  and on whether the medium is point-to-point or
  multipoint
• e.g.,
• twisted pair wires
• coaxial cables
• optical fiber

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Twisted Pair Wires

• consists of two insulated copper wires arranged
  in a regular spiral pattern to minimize the
  electromagnetic interference between adjacent
  pairs
• often used at customer facilities and also over
  distances to carry voice as well as data
  communications
• low frequency transmission medium

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Twisted Pair Wires

• two varieties
• STP (shielded twisted pair)
• the pair is wrapped with metallic foil or braid
  to insulate the pair from electromagnetic
  interference
• UTP (unshielded twisted pair)
• each wire is insulated with plastic wrap, but the
  pair is encased in an outer covering

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Twisted Pair Wires

• Category 3 UTP
• data rates of up to 16mbps are achievable
• Category 5 UTP
• data rates of up to 100mbps are achievable
• more tightly twisted than Category 3 cables
• more expensive, but better performance
• STP
• More expensive, harder to work with

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Twisted Pair Advantages

• inexpensive and readily available
• flexible and light weight
• easy to work with and install

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Twisted Pair Disadvantages

• susceptibility to interference and noise
• attenuation problem
• For analog, repeaters needed every 5-6km
• For digital, repeaters needed every 2-3km
• relatively low bandwidth (3000Hz)

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Coaxial Cable (or Coax)

• bandwidth of up to 400 MHz
• has an inner conductor surrounded by a braided
  mesh
• both conductors share a common center axial,
  hence the term co-axial

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Coax Layers
outer jacket (polyethylene)
shield(braided wire)
insulating material
copper or aluminum conductor
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Coax Advantages

• higher bandwidth
• 400 to 600Mhz
• up to 10,800 voice conversations
• can be tapped easily (pros and cons)
• much less susceptible to interference than
  twisted pair

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Coax Disadvantages

• high attenuation rate makes it expensive over
  long distance
• bulky

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Fiber Optic Cable

• relatively new transmission medium used by
  telephone companies in place of long-distance
  trunk lines
• also used by private companies in implementing
  local data communications networks
• require a light source with injection laser diode
  (ILD) or light-emitting diodes (LED)

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Fiber Optic Layers

• consists of three concentric sections

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Fiber Optic Types

• multimode step-index fiber
• the reflective walls of the fiber move the light
  pulses to the receiver
• multimode graded-index fiber
• acts to refract the light toward the center of
  the fiber by variations in the density
• single mode fiber
• the light is guided down the center of an
  extremely narrow core

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Fiber Optic Signals
fiber optic multimode step-index
fiber optic multimode graded-index
fiber optic single mode
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Fiber Optic Advantages

• greater capacity (bandwidth of up to 2 Gbps)
• smaller size and lighter weight
• lower attenuation
• immunity to environmental interference
• highly secure due to tap difficulty and lack of
  signal radiation

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Fiber Optic Disadvantages

• expensive over short distance
• requires highly skilled installers
• adding additional nodes is difficult

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Wireless (Unguided Media) Transmission

• transmission and reception are achieved by means
  of an antenna
• directional
• transmitting antenna puts out focused beam
• transmitter and receiver must be aligned
• omnidirectional
• signal spreads out in all directions
• can be received by many antennas

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Wireless Examples

• terrestrial microwave transmission
• satellite transmission
• broadcast radio
• infrared

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Terrestrial Microwave Transmission

• uses the radio frequency spectrum, commonly from
  2 to 40 Ghz
• transmitter is a parabolic dish, mounted as high
  as possible
• used by common carriers as well as by private
  networks
• requires unobstructed line of sight between
  source and receiver
• curvature of the earth requires stations (called
  repeaters) to be 30 miles apart

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Microwave Transmission Applications

• long-haul telecommunications service for both
  voice and television transmission
• short point-to-point links between buildings for
  closed-circuit TV or a data link between LANs
• bypass application

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Microwave Transmission Advantages

• no cabling needed between sites
• wide bandwidth
• multichannel transmissions

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Microwave Transmission Disadvantages

• line of sight requirement
• expensive towers and repeaters
• subject to interference such as passing airplanes
  and rain

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Satellite Microwave Transmission

• a microwave relay station in space
• can relay signals over long distances
• geostationary satellites
• remain above the equator at a height of 22,300
  miles (geosynchronous orbit)
• travel around the earth in exactly the time the
  earth takes to rotate

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Satellite Transmission Links

• earth stations communicate by sending signals to
  the satellite on an uplink
• the satellite then repeats those signals on a
  downlink
• the broadcast nature of the downlink makes it
  attractive for services such as the distribution
  of television programming

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Satellite Transmission Process
satellite transponder
dish
dish
22,300 miles
uplink station
downlink station
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Satellite Transmission Applications

• television distribution
• a network provides programming from a central
  location
• direct broadcast satellite (DBS)
• long-distance telephone transmission
• high-usage international trunks
• private business networks

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Principal Satellite Transmission Bands

• C band 4(downlink) - 6(uplink) GHz
• the first to be designated
• Ku band 12(downlink) -14(uplink) GHz
• rain interference is the major problem
• Ka band 19(downlink) - 29(uplink) GHz
• equipment needed to use the band is still very
  expensive

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Satellite Advantages

• can reach a large geographical area
• high bandwidth
• cheaper over long distances

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Satellite Disadvantages

• high initial cost
• susceptible to noise and interference
• propagation delay

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T-1 Carrier

• also referred to as DS-1 signaling
• provides digital full-duplex transmission rates
  of 1.544Mbps
• usually created by multiplexing 24 64-Kbps voice
  or 56-Kbps data lines
• higher speeds are available with T-3 (45Mbps) and
  T-4 services (274Mbps)
• in Europe, E-1 (2.048Mbps) is used instead of T-1

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Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN)

• all-digital transmission facility that is
  designed to replace the analog PSTN
• basic ISDN (basic rate access)
• two 64Kbps bearer channels 16Kbps data channel
  (2BD) 144 Kbps
• broadband ISDN (primary rate access)
• twenty-three 64Kbps bearer channels 64 data
  channel (23BD) 1.536 Mbps

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ISDN Channel Definitions

• B (bearer) channels
• 64 kbps channels that may be used to carry voice,
  data, facsimile, or image
• D (demand) channels
• mainly intended for carrying signaling, billing
  and management information to control ISDN
  services (out-of-band control messages)
• may be either 16 or 64 kbps

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Two Levels of ISDN Service

• basic rate interface (BRI)
• 2B (64 kbps) D (16 kbps) 144 kbps
• primary rate interface (PRI)
• 23B (64 kbps) D (64 kbps) 1.536 Mbps
• North American standard
• 30B (64 kbps) D (64 kbps) 1.984 Mbps
• European standard

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Data Flow Simplex

• only transmit in one direction
• rarely used in data communications
• e.g., receiving signals from the radio station or
  CATV
• the sending station has only one transmitter the
  receiving station has only one receiver

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Simplex Illustration
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Simplex Illustration
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Half Duplex Illustration
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Data Flow Full Duplex

• complete two-way simultaneous transmission
• faster than half-duplex communication because no
  turnaround time is needed

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Full Duplex Illustration
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Protocols Preview

• OSI Seven-Layer Model
• TCP/IP Layers
• IBMs System Network Architecture
• While OSI model is increasingly out of favor in
  application development, it is still very useful
  in understanding networking in a conceptual
  context

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ISOs Open Systems Interconnection (OSI)

• Application Layer
• Presentation Layer
• Session Layer
• Transport Layer
• Network Layer
• Data Link Layer
• Physical Layer

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Generic Communications Interface Illustration
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DTE and DCE
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Modems

• MODEM (modulator-demodulator)
• Data Circuit-terminating Equipment (DCE)
• Any device that accepts a serial stream of bits
  as inputs and produces a modulated carrier as
  output.
• V.34 runs at 28,000 bps (bits per second)

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Error Control Process

• All transmission media have potential for
  introduction of errors
• Error control process has two components
• Error detection
• Error correction