Classical Conditioning

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Classical Conditioning

• How do you get a dog to salivate when he hears a
  bell?

Pavlov's Dog
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Classical Conditioning

• Classical Conditioning Associating a natural
  stimulus and a neutral stimulus

natural stimulus produces a predictable
response neutral stimulus does not produces any
particular response
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Classical Conditioning

• Application of Classical Conditioning
  Psychologists use

Unconditioned stimulus (UCS) (natural
stimulus) that produces an unconditioned response
(UCR) at the same time as a . . .
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Classical Conditioning
Conditioned stimulus (CS) (once-neutral
stimulus) producing the same response, called a
conditioned response (CR) after several
repetitions
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More realistic example

• Getting dental work done (unconditioned stimulus)
  
• hurts (unconditioned response)
• Eventually the sound of the dentists drill
  (conditioned stimulus)
• causes anxiety, fear, or pain (conditioned
  response)

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Generalization/Discrimination

• You may either generalize respond the same to
  all drill sounds (similar stimuli), or
• Discriminate If you learn to respond only to
  dental drill sounds (distinct stimuli)

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Extinction

• If the conditioned stimulus
• is NOT followed by the same unconditioned
  stimulus
• It will result in extinction and the conditioned
  response will disappear

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Operant Conditioning

• Learning from consequences of behavior
• The behavior is either reinforced (increases) or
  punished (decreases)

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Reinforcement

• Reinforcement stimulus or event that increases
  the likelihood a behavior will be repeated
• Example to get a dog to shake hands, you must
  give it a treat
• (reinforcement) every time
• it raises its paw

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Reinforcement

• Primary Reinforcer stimulus that satisfies a
  biological need (food or water)
• Secondary Reinforcer stimulus like money that
  gives a reward by being linked with a primary
  reinforcer (food)

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Schedules of Reinforcement

• Fixed Ratio reinforcement after a fixed number
  of responses (paid after every 10 pizzas made)
• Variable Ratio reinforcement after varying
  number of responses (playing a slot machine)

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Schedules of Reinforcement

• 3. Fixed Interval reinforcement of first
  response after a fixed amount of time (picking up
  your paycheck after 2 weeks)
• 4. Variable Interval reinforcement of first
  response after varying amounts of time (calling a
  friend but getting a busy signal)

Variable reinforcers are more resistant to
extinction than fixed reinforcers
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Shaping

• A process of achieving a desired behavior by
  rewarding similar behaviors until the desired
  behavior is reached
• Example To get a dog to lie down and roll over,
  you must reward each act until the desired trick
  is learned

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Negative Reinforcement

• A behavior increases by removing or preventing a
  painful stimulus
• Example you take an aspirin to relieve a
  headache the headache is a negative reinforcer
  to taking aspirin (aspirin taking increases)

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Punishment

• An unpleasant consequence decreases the frequency
  of the behavior that produced it
• Example Yelling NO!! every time a child gets
  close to the fire will stop the unsafe behavior

• Can produce unwanted side effects
• Rage
• Aggression
• Fear

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Social Learning

• Altering behavior by observing and imitating the
  behavior of others

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Social Learning

• Cognitive Learning altering behavior by mental
  processes
• Latent Learning learning or remembering details
  without intending to (seeing the same things on a
  regular driving route)
• Learned helplessness repeated attempts to
  control a situation fail, you feel helpless
  (cannot change a situation, cannot escape
  punishment often leads to depression)

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Social Learning

• Modeling learning by imitating others

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Social Learning

• Behavior Modification systematic application of
  learning principles to change peoples actions
  and feelings
• Examples
• Use classical conditioning to overcome fears
• Operant conditioning using token economies by
  reinforcing desired behaviors by giving tokens
  that can be exchanged for rewards later
• Social learning through personal systems of
  rewards and punishments to create self-control

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Group Activity

• In groups of 3, read the two behaviors you are
  given
• Decide what general kind of conditioning they
  describe (Classical or Operant) and if operant,
• Determine what specific kind of operant
  conditioning (positive reinforcement, negative
  reinforcement, punishment)
• Explain the example and your answers to the class
• Take notes on all examples given (they will be on
  the test)

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Group Activity
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Memory

• Memory storage and retrieval of what has been
  learned or experienced

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Processes of Memory

• 1. Encoding transforming information so the
  nervous system can process it

Can encode by Seeing the letters Hearing them
spoken or Making a connection face
E
C
A
F
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Processes of Memory

• Storage maintaining information over time
  (depends on how much effort was put into encoding
  the information)
• Retrieval information is brought to mind from
  storage (depends on how efficiently it was
  encoded and stored)

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3 Stages of Memory

• 1. Sensory memory brief memory storage
  immediately following a sensory input

• 1 V F
• X L 5 3
• B 7 W 5

Lasts only a fraction of a second
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3 Stages of Memory

• 2. Short-term memory memory of about 7 items,
  lasts about 20 seconds

Lasts longer if repeated
Chunking grouping items to make them easier to
remember
Primacy-Recency Effect
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3 Stages of Memory

• 3. Long-term memory storage of information over
  extended periods of time

I before e except after c
Semantic memory knowledge of language rules,
words, meanings
Episodic memory memories of your life
Declarative memory information retrieved as
needed
a2b2c2
Procedural memory learned skills, does not need
conscious recollection
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Retrieving Information

• Recognition the retrieval of an idea, object,
  or situation you have experienced before
• Recognizing songs or instruments
• Recognizing answers on a multiple choice test

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Retrieving Information

• Recall active reconstruction of previously
  learned material. Influenced by
• Reconstructive process altering or distorting
  our memories (selective memory)
• Confabulation filling in memory gaps with
  information/experiences that were not there
• Schemas conceptual frameworks we use to make
  sense of the world
• Eidetic memory a photographic memory

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Relearning/Forgetting

• Relearning Can relearn previously learned
  information with less work (reciting a nursery
  rhyme or poem from your childhood)
• Forgetting
• Decay fading away of memory over time
• Older memories remain (can be recovered through
  hypnosis, meditation, brain stimulation)
• Interference blockage of memory by prior or
  later memories
• Amnesia loss of memory from a blow to the head
  or infant amnesia (lack of early memories)

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Improving Memory

• Elaborate Rehearsal linking of new information
  to material that is already known
• Associate new information with past events,
  relationships, feelings
• Learn new information in small bits instead of
  all at once (dont cram)

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Improving Memory

• Mnemonic Devices Using associations to memorize
  and retrieve information
• Acrostics (Queen of Hearts eats raspberry cream
  tarts)
• Use mental pictures to learn making up words,
  stories, etc. to remember

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Using only your notes, on a clean sheet of paper,
list the following

• The 3 Processes of Learning
• The 3 Stages of Memory
• The 4 kinds of long term memory
• The 4 things that influence our recall
• The definition of mnemonic devices

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Psychological Testing

• Test Reliability ability of a test to give the
  same results under similar circumstances
• Do you score about the same when retaken?
• Do different people give you the same score?
• Do you do about the same on each section of the
  test?

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Psychological Testing

• Test Validity ability of a test to measure what
  it is intended to measure
• Does the test accurately predict performance?

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Psychological Testing

• Standardization test must be given the same way
  each time
• The test must establish an average score (norm)
  of a large, well defined, group of people

Norm standard of comparison for test results
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Psychological Testing

• Questions to ask when getting a score
• Would you score the same if you took the test
  again?
• Does the score reflect your knowledge of the
  subject?
• Does your score compare fairly with other
  students who took the test?

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Intelligence Testing

• Intelligence
• The ability to acquire new ideas and new behavior
  and to adapt to new situations
• Or
• The ability to do well on intelligence tests and
  in school

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Theories of Intelligence

• In groups of 4-5 read about the theory of
  intelligence on your card in Section 2 of Chapter
  13 (p. 349-352)
• Summarize the main features of the theory
• Present them to the class who will complete a
  chart in their notes on the theories

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Theories of Intelligence
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Intelligence Tests

• Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale (1973)
• Children tested one at a time
• Define words, draw pictures, explain events in
  daily life
• Intelligence Quotient (IQ) Mental
  Age/Chronological Age X 100

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Intelligence Tests

• Wechsler Tests (1981)
• Tests for adults and children
• One overall score, plus
• Percentile scores in several areas (vocabulary,
  math, picture arrangement)
• More detailed picture of individuals strengths
  and weaknesses

Percentile percent of people taking the test
who scored lower than your score
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Intelligence Tests

• You should complete these questions in 60 seconds
  or less!
• 1.Two ducks and two dogs have a total of fourteen
  legs. True   False
• 2.A pie can be cut into more than seven pieces by
  making four diameter cuts. True   False
• 3.Two of the following numbers add up to
  thirteen.1, 6, 3, 5, 11 True   False

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Personality Testing

• Personality Tests assess personality
  characteristics and identify problems
• Objective tests
• limited or forced-choice format
• Used to study personality characteristics
• Projective tests
• unstructured
• Test-taker can respond freely with their own
  interpretation of various stimuli

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Personality Testing

• Objective Test Examples
• MMPI (Minnesota Multiphasic Personality
  Inventory)
• 567 true-false questions
• Used to assess major patterns of personality and
  extreme emotional disorders
• Usually given with other tests or interviews

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MMPI

• 1. I like mechanics magazines
• 2. I have a good appetite
• 3. I wake up fresh rested most mornings
• 4. I think I would like the work of a librarian
• 5. I am easily awakened by noise
• 6. I like to read newspaper articles on crime
• 7. My hands and feet are usually warm enough

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Personality Testing

• Objective Test Examples
• CPI (California Psychological Inventory)
• true-false questions
• Measures traits such as responsibility,
  self-control, and tolerance
• Used to predict adjustment to stress, leadership,
  and job success
• Usually follow-up test with counseling or
  discussion with a psychologist

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Personality Testing

• Objective Test Examples
• Myers-Briggs Test
• Characterizes personality on four different
  scales
• Shows test takers how they relate to others and
  how others relate to them

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Personality Testing

• Projective Test Examples
• Rorschach Inkblot Test
• Inkblot designs are shown to the test-taker who
  says what he/she sees
• Reveals aspects of the persons personality
• Results often depend on the psychologists
  expectations

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Rorschach Test
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Rorschach Test
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Personality Testing

• Projective Test Examples
• TAT (Thematic Apperception Test)
• Pictures of vague but suggestive situations
• Subjects are asked to tell a story about the
  picture
• Used to assess personality problems of the
  test-taker

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TAT