Concepts of privacy in Japan and New Zealand

1
Concepts of privacy in Japan and New Zealand

• Rowena CullenSchool of Information Management
  Victoria University of Wellington

2
Modern Japan a complex (possibly conflicted)
society

• Popular belief that Japanese lack concept of
  privacy - but this an over-simplification
• Opportunity as Research Fellow, University of
  Tsukuba, December 2006-March 2007 to explore an
  element of this ambivalence
• Concerns about privacy of personal information
  held by government

3
Context of research . . .

• Japan has a highly developed telecommunications
  infrastructure, an extensive broadband network,
  and high internet usage rates (67.2 of the
  population in 2005)
• By contrast, other aspects of Japanese culture
  suggest an overall lack of trust in government
• Impact of this, and generally expressed concerns
  about internet security, on the confidence of
  citizens that government agencies will handle
  their personal information appropriately,
  especially in the online environment

4
Definition of privacy

• Westin (see refs at end)
• "the claim of individuals, groups, or
  institutions to determine for themselves when,
  how and to what extent information about them is
  communicated to others
• Research explored
• perceived risks in submitting information to
  government agencies
• impact of breaches of privacy on trust in
  government

5
Research instrument used based on earlier NZ
project - Reilly and Cullen (E-govt web site)

• New Zealand citizens concerns about the privacy
  of their personal information provided to
  government
• Impact of breaches of privacy on trust in
  government
• Questionnaire and focus group discussions seeking
  responses to scenarios illustrating breaches of
  privacy
• Findings
• face to face communication with government
  preferred
• low levels of confidence in the privacy of online
  communication but use for convenience sake
• greater confidence in government than commercial
  organisations (distinctions between individual
  agencies)
• Little awareness of existing protections
• Breaches of privacy shown to have a negative
  impact on trust in government.

6
Data sought for purposes of comparison, cultural
differences that might emerge

• Same questions on concerns, knowledge of
  protections, trust in govt, impact of breaches,
  distinctions made between agencies, channel
  preference
• Same questionnaire, scenarios altered to suit
  Japanese context (e.g. Juki-Net)
• Explore differences between responses in NZ and
  Japan
• Explanations in responses, and in literature for
  differences
• Examine common perception - privacy is a new
  (Western) concept in Japan

7
Some points noted in literature (English
language only)

• Trust in govt commonly linked to Hofstedes model
  of power distance and collectivism
• Conflicting views of Bellman and Milberg
• Mizutani, Dorsey and Moor discuss the
  introduction of 'loanword' puraibashii
• Argue that in Japanese culture there are related
  concepts concerning secret and forbidden matters
• Concept of privacy more of self-imposed restraint
  vis-a-vis affairs of others (See no evil, hear
  no evil, speak no evil)
• Concept less individualised, but equally strong,
  however, group culture may have slowed extension
  of concern to Internet

8
Nakada and Tamuras concept of plurality

• Explain apparent contradiction between attitudes
  to privacy and individualism
• Dichotomy between Seken and Shakai
• Seken - the aspect of the world that consists of
  traditional and indigenous ways of thinking and
  feeling)
• Shakai - modernized ways of thinking influenced
  by thoughts and systems imported from Western'
  countries.
• 3rd element Ikai - aspect of the world from which
  evil, disasters, crime comes, along with freedom
  and spiritual energy
• Also include contrast between Ohyake (impartial,
  open public domain) and Watakusi (partial,
  secret, selfish domain)

9
Nakada and Tamuras analysis

• When the word puraibashii was introduced to
  Japan, it was often compared with its ostensible
  opposite Ohyake
• This linked the dichotomy of public/private, as
  used in Western thinking, thus Japanese concepts
  of Ohyake/Watakusi seen to express this dichotomy
• Media tend to link the use of ICTs to the concept
  of puraibashii
• Nakad and Tamura argue that puraibashii has come
  to include "expectations of data privacy", but
  not in the wider democratic sense in which it is
  used in western discourse

10
Japanese privacy legislation

• Personal Information Protection Act passed 30 May
  2003 came into effect on 1 April 2005
• Establishes mandatory guidelines for central,
  local and regional government agencies -
  individual ministries to develop equivalent
  guidelines for business in their sector
• Protects only living individuals, confined to
  information that distinguishes an individual from
  others - name, date of birth, address, job title,
  photograph, employment information, etc.
• Focused on responsible management of information
  in databases, not privacy protection for
  sensitive personal information, e.g health or
  financial
• Right to control one's personal data also
  included as a part of the right to privacy
  guaranteed under Article 13 of the Japanese
  Constitution

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Findings

• 34 people interviewed, 28 in English and 6 in
  Japanese
• 19 males and 15 females
• age range from 20-29 (5 respondents) through to
  over 65 (5 respondents)
• Occupations Retd, 4 Housewife, 5 Student, 6
  Academic, 6 Non-professional worker (retail or
  office), 2 Scientific research, 3 Engineering
  and IT, 4 Teacher, 4.
• 33/34 used Internet, 12/34(35) Used Internet
  banking 27/34 (79) used online retail, trading
• Males used online banking more than females, but
  no difference in online retail, small difference
  between those under/over 45 in online retail.

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24/34 (72.7) concerned about the privacy of
personal information exchanged on the Internet

• Number of respondents strongly agreeing (SA),
  agreeing (A), disagreeing (D), or strongly
  disagreeing (SD) that their personal information
  would be handled properly and adequately
  protected by business and government

13
Negative responses to follow-up questions

• Only 9 respondents agreed that they trusted
  government employees with their personal
  information, (no strongly agree responses)
• Just over 50 (n17) agreed or strongly agreed I
  am generally concerned about the amount of
  information that various government organizations
  hold about me, (5 were neutral, 11 disagreed)
• This did not lead to checking security/privacy
  statements on govt web sites
• Only 12 checked for these on govt web sites 20
  checked on business web sites
• Less than a third (n9) strongly agreed or agreed
  that the rules governing the way in which
  government organisations collect and exchange
  information about people are adequate

14
Japanese Refuseniks

• Over 50 sometimes refuse to provide information
  to an agency if they felt there was not an
  adequate reason to ask for it. (Age and gender
  little impact)
• Communication medium for exchanging information
• 22 (64.7) preferred in person
• 19 (29.4) preferred the postal system
• None preferred telephone 2 (5.9) selected the
  Internet
• Distinctions between government agencies in the
  level of trust accorded
• Well trusted were Ministry of Justice, and the
  judiciary
• Less trusted, the ministry in charge of pensions,
  the police, and the newly created Ministry of
  Defense
• Concerns expressed about trustworthiness of local
  government, although 5 trusted City Hall most

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Respondents explain what privacy means to them

• Information they would like to keep private, or
  have control over the disclosure of
• Commonly name, address, age, date and place of
  birth income, assets and savings (etc) family
  (ages of their children (etc), health data,
  education and career. (fears expressed about the
  rising crime rate, and recent abductions.)
• Some added personal habits, thoughts, religious
  ideas, and philosophies
• Some had employer in mind - wanted practices in
  the workplace sharpened up, concerned that pool
  of people who had access to their personal,
  income and health data increased every year

16
Eloquent explanations of concepts held

• One man said keeping personal information safe
  within my castle (wood, not stone),
  highlighting difference in protections offered by
  Japanese law and privacy laws in other countries
• Many said privacy a western concept introduced
  into Japan with modernization, and the post-War
  Constitution. Concept, not well understood in
  Japan, and differed from the way it was perceived
  in other countries
• A small number ( old and young) said they had
  nothing to hide, and therefore no concerns.

17
Little knowledge of privacy protection

• 50 knew of some law or regulation, but could not
  name it
• Some were aware the act worked in conjunction
  with the Constitution to ensure privacy in
  relation to government held information
• Some also knew commercial companies responsible
  for their measures to ensure the protection of
  personal information
• Some believed maintaining privacy was a personal
  responsibility, (possibly linked with high rates
  of withholding personal information requested by
  government?)

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Scenarios

1. A letter from an agency which contained personal
   financial information was sent to another person
   in error, the intended recipient was notified by
   phone and an apology offered
2. An incident in the offices of the local
   prefecture where papers containing information
   about a neighbors property tax affairs, and a
   heated dispute about it, were left lying around
   and were seen by the participant
3. A breach of privacy concerning personal health
   data in a hospital
4. The prosecution of a government employee who had
   sold tax information to a debt recovery firm
5. The introduction in 2002 of the online database
   for registering residents, Juki Net. (55 did
   not have Juki card)

19
Have attitudes to privacy changed in Japan in
recent years?

• Most agreed there was greater concern, prompted
  by three factors
• breaches of privacy by government or
  individuals, reported in the media
• public discussion that took place at the time
  the Personal Information Protection Act was
  passed
• concerns about the security of credit card
  information in the media
• Older respondents inclined to think young people
  less concerned about privacy (although some young
  had major concerns personal experience of
  privacy violations)

20
Contrast between modern concepts of
individuality and privacy and older traditions

• Some older respondents (over 50s) spoke of
  traditional Japanese society, rural and urban,
  as more community minded
• Developing concepts of individuality and privacy
  accompanied by a loss of the sense of community
  and mutual caring of traditional Japanese society
  
• In traditional society, close-knit communities,
  people were expected to exercise personal
  restraint, (hear no evil, see no evil, speak no
  evil
• Similar to drawing down the veil if they heard
  something untoward about a neighbor

21
Comparisons with New Zealand data

• Respondents engaged in online
• activity in the two studies

22
Comparison in attitudes Japan/New Zealand
23
Despite overall low levels of trust . . .

• Japanese respondents less active in assuring
  themselves, of privacy protection on govt web
  sites (36 vs NZers 65)
• More likely to seek statements on privacy
  /security on business sites (61), NZers 78
• Many comments referred to poor attitude of
  employees, declining standards, individualism,
  rather than agencies themselves privacy
  statements not believed?

24
Conclusions

• Individual comments about scenarios reflect
  attitudes to privacy identified by Mizutani,
  Dorsey and Moor, and Nakada and Tamura
• Affront felt on behalf of neighbour (scenario
  2), and comments on traditional community values
  used language that fits with philosophical
  framework described by Mizutani, Dorsey and Moor
• Group-based concepts of privacy may be so strong
  that regulations have failed to provide
  protection in online world
• Possibly reflected in overall lower rates of
  concern about the online environment among
  Japanese respondents. Concerns are more personal

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Other factors

• Possible endorsement of Nakada and Tamura
  framework growth in self-centered individualism,
  alienation from more caring society of the past,
  even if essential to Japans advancement
• Less emphasis on democratic values than in
  western concept of privacy
• Some impact of low level of trust generally in
  politicians in Japan corruption commonly
  reported (Japan 17th on Corruption Perceptions
  Index)
• High level of dissatisfaction reported here,
  needs to be addressed

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References

• Reilly, P and R. Cullen. Information Privacy and
  Trust in Government a citizen-based perspective.
  Wellington State Services Commission, 2006.
  Retrieved 16 January 2006 from
  http//www.e.govt.nz/resources/research/trust-and-
  privacy
• Westin, A. Privacy and Freedom. New York
  Atheneum, 1967, p 7
• Hofstede, G. Cultures and organizations Software
  of the mind. New York McGraw-Hill, 1991
• Bellman, S., Johnson, E.J., Kobrin, S.J. and
  G.L.Lohse, "International differences in
  information privacy concerns a global survey of
  consumers." The Information Society 20, 2004, pp
  313-324
• Milberg, S.J., Smith, H.J., and S.J.Burke.
  "Information privacy corporate management and
  national regulation." Organization Science
  11(1), 2000, pp 35-57
• Mizutani, M., J. Dorsey, and J.H.Moor. "The
  Internet and Japanese conception of privacy."
  Ethics and Information Technology 6, 2004,
  pp121-128
• Nakada, M. and T. Tamura. "Japanese conceptions
  of privacy an intercultural perspective." Ethics
  and Information Technology 7, 2005, pp 27-36
• Transparency International. Corruptions
  Perception Index 2006 http//www.transparency.org