CYBERNETICS

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CYBERNETICS

• Szabó Zita
• Vass Milán

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Cybernetics

• Cybernetics is the interdisciplinary study of the
  structure of regulatory systems.
• Cybernetics is preeminent when the system under
  scrutiny is involved in a closed signal loop,
  where action by the system in an environment
  causes some change in the environment and that
  change is manifest to the system via
  information/feedback that causes changes in the
  way the system then behaves, and all this in
  service of a goal or goals. This "circular
  causal" relationship is necessary and sufficient
  for a cybernetic perspective.

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Example of cybernetic thinking. On the one hand a
company is approached as a system in an
environment. On the other hand cybernetic factory
can be modeled as a control system
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• Contemporary cybernetics began as an
  interdisciplinary study connecting the fields of
  control systems, electrical network theory,
  mechanical engineering, logic modeling,
  evolutionary biology, neuroscience, anthropology,
  and psychology in the 1940s.
• Other fields of study which have influenced or
  been influenced by cybernetics include game
  theory, system theory (a mathematical counterpart
  to cybernetics), psychology (especially
  neuropsychology, behavioral psychology, cognitive
  psychology), philosophy, and architecture.

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Definition

• The term cybernetics stems from the Greek
  kybernetes, steersman, governor.
• Cybernetics is a broad field of study, but the
  essential goal of cybernetics is to understand
  and define the functions and processes of systems
  that have goals, and that participate in
  circular, causal chains that move from action to
  sensing to comparison with desired goal, and
  again to action.
• Studies in cybernetics provide a means for
  examining the design and function of any system,
  including social systems such as business
  management and organizational learning, including
  for the purpose of making them more efficient and
  effective.

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Definition

• Cybernetics was defined by Norbert Wiener Its
  focus is how anything (digital, mechanical or
  biological) processes information, reacts to
  information, and changes or can be changed to
  better accomplish the first two tasks.
• The art of ensuring the efficacy of action" by
  Louis Couffignal
• "Cybernetics is the study of systems and
  processes that interact with themselves and
  produce themselves from themselves" by Louis
  Kauffman, President of the American Society for
  Cybernetics.

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The Roots of Cybernetic theory

• The word cybernetics was first used in the
  context of "the study of self-governance" by
  Plato in The Laws to signify the governance of
  people.
• The word "cybernétique" was also used in 1834 by
  the physicist André-Marie Ampère (17751836) to
  denote the sciences of government in his
  classification system of human knowledge.

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History

• For a time during the past 30 years, the field of
  cybernetics followed a boom-bust cycle of
  becoming more and more dominated by the subfields
  of artificial intelligence and machine-biological
  interfaces
• When this research fell out of favor, the field
  as a whole fell from grace.
• In the 1970s new cybernetics has emerged in
  multiple fields, first in biology. In political
  science, Project Cybersyn attempted to introduce
  a cybernetically controlled economy.

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Present

• One characteristic of new cybernetics is that it
  views information as constructed and
  reconstructed by an individual interacting with
  the environment.
• Another characteristic of the new cybernetics is
  its contribution towards bridging the
  "micro-macro gap". That is, it links the
  individual with the society.
• Geyer and van der Zouwen also noted that a
  transition from classical cybernetics to the new
  cybernetics involves a transition from classical
  problems to new problems.

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In Biology

• Cybernetics in biology is the study of cybernetic
  systems present in biological organisms,
  primarily focusing on how animals adapt to their
  environment, and how information in the form of
  genes is passed from generation to generation.
• There is also a secondary focus on cyborgs
  (cybernetic organism).

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In Computer Science

• Computer science directly applies the concepts of
  cybernetics to the control of devices and the
  analysis of information.
• Robotics
• Decision support system
• Cellular automaton
• Simulation

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In Engineering In Mathematics

• Cybernetics in engineering is used to analyze
  cascading failures and System Accidents, in which
  the small errors and imperfections in a system
  can generate disasters.
• Mathematical Cybernetics focuses on the factors
  of information, interaction of parts in systems,
  and the structure of systems.
• Dynamical system
• Information theory
• Systems theory

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In Sociology

• By examining group behavior through the lens of
  cybernetics, sociology seeks the reasons for such
  spontaneous events as smart mobs and riots, as
  well as how communities develop rules, such as
  etiquette, by consensus without formal
  discussion.
• Affect Control Theory explains role behavior,
  emotions, and labeling theory in terms of
  homeostatic maintenance of sentiments associated
  with cultural categories.

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The General Systems Theory
of
Ludwig von Bertalanffy
Tiringer András Bányai Gábor
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Introduction Basic concepts

• Founder of General System Theory

• Theory of complexity

• Developement of systems

• Understanding the world and processes

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Principles of GST
Systems theory

• Founder Ludwig von Bertalanffy
• Interdependence between the knower and the known
• Mankind is such a group that should act in
  accordance with the evolution and the history
• To understand the systems theory biological and
  chemical rules arenot enough to keep in mind -
• connections betweens systemsshould be understood

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Principles of GST
Autopoises and Autonomy

• The system creates its own components, organises
  the network, and at the same time it is
  changing, decaying and renewing itself.

• Autonomy self-government

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Principles of GST
Dependence on the future

• According to the theorists the initial status
  determines the goal
• Bertalanffys example two groups of rats until
  day 50 they receive the same food from day 50
  to day 200 group 1 receives food including all
  the necessary vitamines rats weight 170
  grammes group 2 receives food that lacks
  vitamins rats wiehgt 50 gammes from day 200 to
  day 300 the two groups receive the same food,
  at the end they all weight 180 grammes note
  unhealthy eating may have irreversible
  consequences that should be investigated later
  on

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Principles of GST
Closed and opened systems, Entropy

• Open system continuously interacts with its
  environment

• Closed system isolated from its surrounding
  environment

• Disorder of a system

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Principles of GST
The sciences

• Mainstream analytical sciences make the
  differences bigger
• They rather focus on their specific field and do
  not seek wider interdependence
• Garrett Hardin we cannot do only one thing in
  oneminute
• Bertalanffy systems theory has little influence
• on life sciences. His explaination mechanic vs
  molecular biology

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Principles of GST
Culture

• Culture is autonom but not self-regulator

• Bertalanffy does not consider culture as a system

• Our industrial culture is dying

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Principles of GST
Understanding processes

• Life is a process of understanding
• Understanding is not a deliberate act
• People are aware of themselves, not only of
  theirenvironment. We call it self-concept

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Principles of GST
Contact - communication

• The goal is the developement of behaviour
  consonance among living organisms

• Only gentle communication exist

• Communication is based on language

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Principles of GST
Cusanust

• Everything is relative

• Every statement is coming from one viewpoint

• God is relative

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Principles of GST
Conclusions

• Systems theory helps us to understand problems in
  families and different communities, thus we can
  judge short-term oriented and material sciences
• Systems theory helps us to identify
  interdependence
• Illness of the society a selfish minority is
  todiminish the role of the small communities
• It threatens the sustainability of
  thecivilization in the earth

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CONTROL THEORY

• Presentation by Sára Hortoványi and Szilvia Blaskó

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What is Control theory?

• a theory that deals with influencing the behavior
  of dynamical systems
• an interdisciplinary subfield of science, which
  originated in engineering and mathematics, and
  evolved into use by the social sciences, like
  psychology, sociology and criminology

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Fundamentals

• The word control has two main meanings
• understood as the activity of testing or checking
  
• to act, to implement decisions that guarantee
  that device behaves as desired

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• Control idea trace back in times of Aristotle
• (384-322 BC)
• if every instrument could accomplish its own
  work, obeying or anticipating the will of others
  if the shuttle weaved and the pick touched the
  lyre without a hand to guide them, chief workmen
  would not need servants, nor masters slaves.

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Fundamental concepts in Control Theory

• There are three fundamental concepts
• Feedback (Now it is an active concept in
  practically all area of activity)
• Need for fluctuations (This is a basic principle
  that we apply and use many times in our every day
  life)
• Optimization (Whose goal is to find the values
  for variables in order to maximize the profit or
  to minimize the costs subject to some
  constraints)

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Open-loop and Closed-loop control systems

• Open-loop control -Here, the system does not
  measure the output and there is no compensation
  of that output to make it conform to the desired
  output
• (Its like a "good-luck-anticipating-the-syste
  m-exactly-and-getting-it-to-work control".)
• Closed-loop control Here, the system uses
  feedback, which is the process of measuring a
  control variable and returning the output to
  influence the value of the variable

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Closed-loop controllers advantages over
Open-loop controllers

• disturbance rejection (such as unmeasured
  friction in a motor)
• guaranteed performance even with model
  uncertainties, when the model structure does not
  match perfectly the real process and the model
  parameters are not exact
• unstable processes can be stabilized
• reduced sensitivity to parameter variations
• improved reference tracking performance

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Classical control

• There are two main approaches to control theory
• classical control and modern control
• Classical control
• To avoid the problems of the open-loop
  controller, control theory introduces feedback. A
  closed-loop controller uses feedback to control
  states or outputs of a dynamical system
  .Classical control developing as it did for
  feedback amplifier design, was naturally couched
  in the frequency domain and the s-plane. Relying
  on transform methods, it is primarily applicable
  to linear time-invariant (LTI) systems, though
  some extensions were made to nonlinear systems.
  Classical control design makes extensive use of
  trial-and-error and qualitative graphical
  techniques, as well as a great deal of experience
  and intuition to balance all the factors that
  contribute to the system's overall behaviour.

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Modern control

• Unfortunately, classical control theory is
  difficult to apply to multi-input/multi-output
  (MIMO) and multi-loop systems, which led to the
  development of modern control.
• Modern control
• is fundamentally a time domain approach based
  on linear algebra. Because the system's dynamical
  interconnections are described by vectors and
  matrices, modern control techniques can easily be
  extended to MIMO system simply by increasing
  their dimensions. Fortunately, much of the
  intuition of classical control techniques can be
  incorporated into modern control design.

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Different kind of approaches

• Frequency-Domain approach
• Time-Domain Algebraic approach
• Polynomial-Matrix-Domain Frequential approach
• Geometric approach
• Structural-Digraph approach
• A general conclusion is that, at present, Control
  Theory is an interdisciplinary area of research
  where many advanced mathematical concepts,
  techniques and methods work together to produce
  an impressive body of important applied
  mathematics. The advances in Control of Systems
  are coming both from mathematical progress and
  from technological development.

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Data, Information, Communication, Information
System
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What is Data?

• Data refers to a collection of organised
  information, usually the result of experience,
  observation or experiment, other information
  within a computer system, or a set of premises.
  This may consist of numbers, words, or images,
  particularly as measurements or observations of a
  set of variables.

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Data

• In computer science, data is anything in a form
  suitable for use with a computer.
• Data is often distinguished from programs. A
  program is a set of instructions that detail a
  task for the computer to perform. In this sense,
  data is thus everything that is not program code.

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Data

• Raw data is a collection of numbers, characters,
  images or other outputs from devices to convert
  physical quantities into symbols, in a very broad
  sense. Such data is typically further processed
  by a human or input into a computer, stored and
  processed there, or transmitted (output) to
  another human or computer.

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Notes

• In an alternate usage, binary files (which are
  not human-readable) are sometimes called "data",
  as distinguished from human-readable text".
• The total amount of digital data in 2007 was
  estimated to be 281 billion gigabytes.

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Meaning of data, information and knowledge

• The terms information and knowledge are
  frequently used for overlapping concepts. The
  main difference is in the level of abstraction
  being considered. Data is the lowest level of
  abstraction, information is the next level, and
  finally, knowledge is the highest level among all
  three.citation needed For example, the height
  of Mt. Everest is generally considered as "data",
  a book on Mt. Everest geological characteristics
  may be considered as "information", and a report
  containing practical information on the best way
  to reach Mt. Everest's peak may be considered as
  "knowledge.

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• Information as a concept bears a diversity of
  meanings, from everyday usage to technical
  settings. Generally speaking, the concept of
  information is closely related to notions of
  constraint, communication, control, data, form,
  instruction, knowledge, meaning, mental stimulus,
  pattern, perception, and representation.
• Beynon-Davies uses the concept of a sign to
  distinguish between data and information. Data
  are symbols. Information occurs when symbols are
  used to refer to something.

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Something new, advanced interpretableknowledge
INFORMATION
How can you get informations?

• Directly with perception
• From proccessing data

Data formalised, stored knowledge
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Communication

• Communication is the process of attempting to
  convey information from a sender to a receiver
  with the use of a medium. Communication requires
  that all parties have an area of communicative
  commonality. There are auditory means, such as
  speaking, singing and sometimes tone of voice,
  and nonverbal, physical means, such as body
  language, sign language, paralanguage, touch, eye
  contact, or the use of writing

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• In a simple model, information or content (e.g. a
  message in natural language) is sent in some form
  (as spoken language) from an emisor/ sender/
  encoder to a destination/ receiver/ decoder. In a
  slightly more complex form a sender and a
  receiver are linked reciprocally. A particular
  instance of communication is called a speech act.
  In the presence of "communication noise" on the
  transmission channel (air, in this case),
  reception and decoding of content may be faulty,
  and thus the speech act may not achieve the
  desired effect. One problem with this
  encode-transmit-receive-decode model is that the
  processes of encoding and decoding imply that the
  sender and receiver each possess something that
  functions as a code book, and that these two code
  books are, at the very least, similar if not
  identical. Although something like code books is
  implied by the model, they are nowhere
  represented in the model, which creates many
  conceptual difficulties.

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Types of communication

• There are only 3 major parts in any communication
  which is body language, voice, tonality and
  words. According to the research (Mehrabian and
  Ferris,'Inference of Attitude from Nonverbal
  Communication in Two Channels' in The Journal of
  Counselling Psychology Vol.31, 1967,pp.248-52),
  55 of impact is determined by body
  language--postures, gestures, and eye contact,
  38 by the tone of voice, and 7 by the content
  or the words used in the communication process.

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Nonverbal communication

• Nonverbal communication is the process of
  communicating through sending and receiving
  wordless messages. Such messages can be
  communicated through gesture, body language or
  posture facial expression and eye contact,
  object communication such as clothing, hairstyles
  or even architecture, or symbols and
  infographics.
• Speech may also contain nonverbal elements known
  as paralanguage, including voice quality, emotion
  and speaking style, as well as prosodic features
  such as rhythm, intonation and stress. Likewise,
  written texts have nonverbal elements such as
  handwriting style, spatial arrangement of words,
  or the use of emoticons.

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Information Systems

• The term information system has different
  meanings
• In computer security it is described by three
  objects, structure, channels and behavior
• In geography it is used to integrate, store,
  edit,analyse, share and display georeferenced
  information.
• In knowledge representation, it consists of three
  components human, technology and organisation

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• In telecommunications, an information system is
  any telecommunications and computer related
  equipment or interconnected system or subsystems
  of equipment that is used in the acquisition,
  storage, manipulation, management, movement,
  control, display, transmission, or reception of
  voice, data and includes software, firmware and
  hardware.
• The most common view of an information system is
  one of Input-Process-Output

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• Information systems deal with the development,
  use and management of an organization's IT
  infrastructure.
• In the post-industrial information age, the focus
  of companies has shifted from being
  product-oriented to knowledge-oriented
• The biggest asset of companies today is their
  information--represented by people, experience,
  know-how, innovations
• the study of information systems focuses on why
  and how technology can be put into best use to
  serve the information flow within an
  organization.

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• Information Systems has a number of different
  areas of work
• Information Systems Strategy
• Information Systems Management
• Information Systems Development
• Each of which branches out into a number of sub
  disciplines, that overlap with other science and
  managerial disciplines such as computer science,
  pure and engineering sciences, social and
  behavioral sciences, and business management.

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• The IT Department partly governs the information
  technology development, use, application and
  influence on a business or corporation. A
  computer based information system, following a
  definition of Langefors is
• a technologically implemented medium for
  recording, storing, and disseminating linguistic
  expressions,
• as well as for drawing conclusions from such
  expressions.
• which can be formulated as a generalized
  information systems design mathematical program.