Module 10 Operant

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Module 10Operant Cognitive Approaches
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Thorndikes Law of Effect

• Behaviors followed by positive consequences are
  strengthened while behaviors followed by negative
  consequences are weakened

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Skinners Operant Conditioning

• An operant response is a response that can be
  modified by its consequences and is a meaningful
  unit of ongoing behavior that can be easily
  measured
• Operant conditioning focuses on how consequences
  affect behavior

Source Based on Behavior of Organisms, by B. F.
Skinner, 1938. Appleton-Century-Crofts.
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Reinforcement Punishment

• Reinforcement (Strengthens Behavior)
• A consequence that occurs after a behavior and
  increases the likelihood that the behavior will
  occur again
• Punishment (Weakens Behavior)
• A consequence that occurs after a behavior and
  decreases the chance that the behavior will occur
  again

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Reinforcement Punishment

• Reinforcement (Strengthens Behavior)
• A consequence that occurs after a behavior and
  increases the likelihood that the behavior will
  occur again
• Positive reinforcement
• presentation of a stimulus that increases the
  probability that the behavior will occur again
• Negative reinforcement
• an aversive stimulus whose removal increases the
  likelihood that the preceding response will occur
  again

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Reinforcement Punishment

• Punishment (Weakens Behavior)
• A consequence that occurs after a behavior and
  decreases the chance that the behavior will occur
  again
• Positive punishment
• Presenting an aversive stimulus after a response
• It decreases the chances that a response will
  recur
• Negative punishment
• Removing a reinforcing stimulus after a response
• It decreases the chances that a response will
  recur

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Clarification of Terms

• Reinforcement vs. Punishment
• Reinforcement- Strengthens preceding behavior
• Punishment- Weakens preceding behavior
• Positive vs. Negative
• Positive- adding/ introducing a stimulus
• Negative- subtracting/ taking away a stimulus

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Examples of Operant Conditioning Toilet Training

• Target behavior
• Goal is for Sheryl to urinate in the toilet
• Preparation
• Give Sheryl a large glass of apple juice
• Reinforcers
• Each time Sheryl performs the desired behavior,
  she receives an immediate reinforcer
• Shaping
• Each time Sheryl performs a step that leads up to
  using the toilet, she receives reinforcement

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Primary vs. Secondary Reinforcers

• Primary reinforcer
• Stimulus that is innately satisfying and requires
  no learning to become pleasurable
• Food, water, and sex
• Secondary reinforcer
• Stimulus that has acquired its reinforcing power
  through experience
• Coupons, money, and grades

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Consequences
Positive Reinforcement (pleasant stimulus applied) Increases the preceding behavior
Negative Reinforcement (unpleasant stimulus removed or withheld) Increases the preceding behavior
Positive Punishment (unpleasant stimulus applied) Decreases the preceding behavior
Negative Punishment (pleasant stimulus removed or withheld) Decreases the preceding behavior
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Positive Reinforcement Examples
Action Consequence Increase in Behavior
Dog looks for a bone at the neighbors house. Neighbor throws dog a bone. Dog will return to neighbors home in search of a bone.
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Positive Reinforcement Examples
Action Consequence Increase in Behavior
A student studies for a test. The student earns and A on the test. The student will study again.
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Positive Reinforcement Examples
Action Consequence Increase in Behavior
A student takes a psychology class. The student really enjoys and learns a lot from the psychology class ?! The student will probably take another psychology class later!
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Negative Reinforcement Examples
Action Consequence Increase in Behavior
The little boy whines when he is supposed to eat chopped liver. His parents take away the chopped liver. The little boy will whine to get his way again.
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Negative Reinforcement Examples
Action Consequence Increase in Behavior
Sarah cries when the doctor tries to give her a shot. The doctor decided not to give her a shot. Sarah will probably cry to avoid unpleasant situations in the future.
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Negative Reinforcement Examples
Action Consequence Increase in Behavior
Jennie is pulled over for speeding and cries. The police officer decides not to give Mrs. Gallagher a speeding ticket. Jennie will probably cry to avoid tickets in the future.
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Negative Reinforcement Examples

• Taking an aspirin to relieve a headache.
• Hurrying home in the winter to get out of the
  cold.
• Giving in to an argument or to a dogs begging.
• Fanning oneself to escape the heat.
• Leaving a movie theater if the movie is bad.
• Smoking in order to relieve anxiety.
• Following prison rules in order to be released
  from confinement.
• Feigning a stomachache in order to avoid school.
• Putting on a car safety belt to stop an
  irritating buzz.
• Turning down the volume of a very loud radio.
• Putting up an umbrella to escape the rain.
• Saying uncle to stop being beaten.

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Positive Punishment Examples
Action Consequence Decrease in Behavior
Joe misses 3 free throws in the basketball game. Joe must run three sprints after the game. Joe will be less likely to miss free throws in the next basketball game.
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Positive Punishment Examples
Action Consequence Decrease in Behavior
Meggie touches electrical outlet. Meggie experiences mildly painful shock. Meggie wont touch the outlet again.
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Positive Punishment Examples
Action Consequence Decrease in Behavior
Quinn touched a hot pan. Quinns finger is burnt. Quinn will not touch the hot pan again.
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Negative Punishment Examples
Action Consequence Decrease in Behavior
Mr. Spooner speeds. Mr. Spooner has to pay for an expensive speeding ticket (money is taken away). Mr. Spooner will probably not speed in the near future!
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Negative Punishment Examples
Action Consequence Decrease in Behavior
A child misbehaves in a restaurant. Her mother will not let her order dessert. The child will be less likely to misbehave in the future.
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Negative Punishment Examples
Action Consequence Decrease in Behavior
Quinn pushes Meggie. Quinn has to sit in timeout. Quinn will be less likely to push Meggie again.
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BE CAREFUL,

• OPERANT CONDITIONING VARIES WITH THE INDIVIDUAL

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Action Consequences Behavior?
Kaitlin talks during class. Teacher reprimands Kaitlin for talking. P0SITIVE REINFORCEMENT? Kaitlin really wants attention, she will be more like to talk in class again.
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Action Consequences Behavior?
Kaitlin talks during class. Teacher reprimands Kaitlin for talking. PUNISHMENT? Kaitlin wants the teachers approval, she will be less likely to talk in class again.
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Action Consequences Behavior?
Kaitlin talks during class. Kaitlin gets a detention. POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT? Kaitlin really needs quiet time to do her homework after school.
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Action Consequences Behavior?
Kaitlin talks during class. Kaitlin gets a detention. PUNISHMENT? Kaitlin has a busy after school schedule and may be kicked off the team.
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Classifying Consequences

• What type of operant conditioning is it?

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Which consequence?

• Positive reinforcement
• Negative reinforcement
• Positive punishment
• Negative punishment

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Positive Reinforcement

• A rat presses a bar and receives a food pellet.
• ADDING a pleasant consequence that INCREASES the
  likelihood of the behavior

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Positive Punishment

• A child swears and is spanked.
• ADDING an unpleasant consequence that DECREASES
  the likelihood of the behavior

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Negative Punishment

• A child has her bike taken away for crashing it.
• SUBTRACTING a pleasant consequence that DECREASES
  the likelihood of the behavior

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Negative Punishment

• A teenager is put on restriction for keeping the
  car out too late.
• SUBTRACTING a pleasant consequence that DECREASES
  the likelihood of the behavior

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Negative Reinforcement

• A child swims three more laps just so he can stop
  swimming which he hates.
• SUBTRACTING an unpleasant consequence that
  INCREASES the likelihood of the behavior

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Positive Reinforcement

• You study and earn an A.
• ADDING a pleasant consequences that INCREASES the
  likelihood of the behavior

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Positive Punishment

• You party all night and get an F.
• ADDING an unpleasant consequence that DECREASES
  the likelihood of the behavior

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Positive Punishment

• You are caught speeding and are given a ticket by
  the highway patrol.
• ADDING an unpleasant consequence that DECREASES
  the likelihood of the behavior

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Negative Punishment

• A child is acting up in class and is sent to the
  corner of the room for 10 minutes.
• SUBTRACTING a pleasant consequence that DECREASES
  the likelihood of the behavior

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Negative Reinforcement

• You clean up your room to avoid your moms
  nagging.
• SUBTRACTING an unpleasant consequence that
  INCREASES the likelihood of the behavior

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Negative Reinforcement

• Since you find that aspirin relieves your
  headaches, you find yourself taking it every time
  you feel a headache coming on.
• SUBTRACTING an unpleasant consequence that
  INCREASES the likelihood of the behavior

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Negative Reinforcement

• Whenever shock is applied to a rats feet, it
  presses a lever to stop it.
• SUBTRACTING an unpleasant consequence that
  INCREASES the likelihood of the behavior

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Negative Reinforcement

• A rat has learned to press a lever whenever a
  light comes on in order to prevent shock from
  ever being applied.
• SUBTRACTING an unpleasant consequence that
  INCREASES the likelihood of the behavior

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Positive Reinforcement

• Every time a child says the words mommy or
  daddy, both parents get very excited and pay
  extra attention to him. Soon the child is saying
  these words more and more.
• ADDING a pleasant consequences that INCREASES the
  likelihood of the behavior

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Classical or Operant?

• Identification Activity

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Decide CC or OC

• If the situation is an example of classical
  conditioning, label the UCS, UCR, CS, and CR.
• If the situation is an example of operant
  conditioning, decide which of the four
  consequences applies (positive reinforcement,
  negative reinforcement, positive punishment, or
  negative punishment).

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Scene One

• A very bright (mildly painful) light is turned on
  a rat. The rat has learned that he can turn off
  the light by pressing a lever on the other side
  of his cage. As soon as the light comes on, the
  rat runs across the room and presses the lever.
• Operant Conditioning
• Negative Reinforcement

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Scene Two

• When a mother strokes her infants skin, the
  stroking creates pleasure responses in the baby.
  After this goes on for many days, that baby
  begins to show pleasure responses
• Classical Conditioning
• UCS- stroking
• UCR- pleasure
• CS- mother
• CR- pleasure

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Scene Three

• A patient in a mental hospital is very disruptive
  at meal times. She grabs food from the plates of
  those sitting near her and tries to cram the food
  in her mouth. Because this behavior of stealing
  food is very undesirable, a plan is developed
  whereby every time the patient steals food from
  other plates, she is immediately taken to a room
  without food.
• Operant Conditioning
• Negative Punishment

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Scene Four

• Johnny has gotten into a habit of yelling Bye,
  Mom and then slamming the door very loudly in
  his hurry to leave for school in the morning.
  The door slam causes his mother to flinch. After
  several days of the procedure, Johnnys mother
  begins to flinch at the sound of her sons words,
  Bye, Mom.
• Classical Conditioning
• UCS- door slam
• UCR- flinching
• CS- Bye, Mom
• CR- flinching

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Scene Five

• Imagine you have a friend who keeps the
  temperature in her home so high that each
  occasion on which you visit her you find yourself
  perspiring. The last time you visited her, you
  noticed that you began to perspire and became
  uncomfortable as soon as you saw her house
  (before you even got inside).
• Classical Conditioning
• UCS- heat
• UCR- perspiration
• CS- sight of friends house
• CR- perspiration

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Scene Six

• Fred leaves his clothes and toys all over his
  room. It seems that the only time he cleans up
  his room is when his mother yells at him. When
  she yells at him, Fred picks up his clothes and
  puts away his toys.
• Operant Conditioning
• Negative Reinforcement

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Scene Seven

• Mr. Mrs. Jones are having a heated argument
  that both are finding unpleasant. Mr. Jones gets
  up and leaves the room, closing the door behind
  him. This has the effect of terminating the
  argument. From then on, every time Mrs. Jones
  raises her voice, Mr. Jones leaves the room.
• Operant Conditioning
• Negative Reinforcement

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Scene Eight

• A husband who usually ignores his wife still
  likes to think of himself as an understanding
  man. So, whenever his wife complains that her
  heart condition (which has no medical cause) is
  giving her pain, he becomes attentive and tries
  to comfort her. This responsiveness doesnt seem
  to help much her reports of heart trouble just
  increase.
• Operant Conditioning
• Positive Reinforcement

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Operant vs. Classical Conditioning

• Goal
• The goal of operant conditioning is to increase
  or decrease the rate of a response
• The goal of classical conditioning is to create a
  new response to a neutral stimulus
• Voluntary or involuntary response
• In operant conditioning, the individual must
  first perform a voluntary response before getting
  a reward
• In classical conditioning, physiological reflexes
  (involuntary responses) are triggered by a
  stimulus

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Schedules of Reinforcement

• Schedule of Reinforcement
• A program or rule that determines how and when
  the occurrence of a response will be followed by
  a reinforcer
• Continuous reinforcement
• Every occurrence of the operant response is
  reinforced
• Partial reinforcement
• Responses are reinforced only some of the time

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Fixed-Ratio

• Reinforcement given after a specific number of
  correct responses
• Required number of correct responses for
  reinforcement does not change
• Example Every 4th correct response is rewarded

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Fixed-Interval

• First correct response after a certain amount of
  time has passed is reinforced
• Required amount of time does not change

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Variable-Ratio

• Reinforcement is given after a certain number of
  correct responses
• Required number of correct responses for
  reinforcement changes constantly
• Example Slot machines in Las Vegas operate on a
  variable-ratio schedule of reinforcement

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Variable Interval

• First correct response after a set amount of time
  has passed is reinforced
• Required amount of time changes constantly

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Schedules of Reinforcement Activity

• Identify the Schedule (X2)

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Scene 1

• Kimmy loves to go bowling and get strikes. She
  may roll the bowling ball three times to get a
  strike. Sometimes, she only needs to roll the
  bowling ball once to get a strike.
• Steady or sporadic reinforcement?
• Sporadic- Variable
• Reinforced contingent on time or number of
  responses?
• Number of response- Ratio
• VARIABLE RATIO

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Scene 2

• Jacob gets paid 10.00 for every hours he works.
  Jacob would like to make more, but no matter how
  productive he is, he only receives 10.00 per
  hour.
• Steady or sporadic reinforcement?
• Steadily- fixed
• Reinforced contingent on time or number of
  responses?
• Time- interval
• FIXED INTERVAL

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Scene 3

• Marissa gets praise from her parents every now
  and then. She never knows when she will get
  praised. She may have to wait two months, or
  only a week.
• Steady or sporadic reinforcement?
• Sporadic- Variable
• Reinforced contingent on time or number of
  responses?
• Time- interval
• VARIABLE INTERVAL

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Scene 4

• Ervin has figured out that every time he says, I
  love you, to his girlfriend, his girlfriend
  kisses him. This inspires Ervin to tell her that
  he loves her all the time.
• Steady or sporadic reinforcement?
• Steadily- fixed
• Reinforced contingent on time or number of
  responses?
• Number of responses- ratio
• FIXED RATIO

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Scene 5

• If Little Amber is good at the store, her dad
  might give her a lollipop. Sometimes she has to
  be good on two trips to the store, and sometimes
  only one trip to receive her lollipop.
• Steady or sporadic reinforcement?
• Sporadic- variable
• Reinforced contingent on time or number of
  responses?
• Number of responses- ratio
• VARIABLE RATIO

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Scene 6

• Paulie pledges to read two books every month.
  For each month he accomplishes his task, he
  receives points that he can redeem for prizes.
• Steady or sporadic reinforcement?
• Steadily- fixed
• Reinforced contingent on time or number of
  responses?
• Time- interval
• FIXED INTERVAL

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Most Effective?

• Which type of schedule do you think is the most
  effective?

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Operant Conditioning Concepts

• Generalization
• An animal or person emits the same response to
  similar stimuli
• Young child generalizes the word Daddy to all
  males
• Discrimination
• A response is emitted in the presence of a
  stimulus that is reinforced and not in the
  presence of unreinforced stimuli
• Parents reinforce the child saying Daddy in the
  presence of their real father, but do not
  reinforce the child when she calls strangers
  Daddy
• Extinction
• Reduction in an operant response when it is no
  longer followed by a reinforcer
• Spontaneous recovery
• Temporary recovery in the rate of responding

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Power of Immediate Reinforcement

• Intrapersonal Activity 21 3

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Cognitive Learning

• Cognitive learning involves mental processes such
  as attention memory
• Cognitive map
• Mental representation in the brain of the layout
  of an environment and its features
• Social cognitive learning
• Results from watching, imitating, and modeling
• Does not require the observer to perform any
  observable behavior or receive any observable
  reward

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Banduras Social Cognitive Theory 4 Processes

• Albert Bandura Identified four required factors
  for observational learning
• Attention
• Observer must pay attention to what the model
  says or does
• Memory
• Observer must remember the information so that it
  can be retrieved and used later
• Imitation
• Observer must be able to use the remembered
  information to guide his/her own actions and
  imitate the models behavior
• Motivation
• Observer must have some reason or incentive to
  imitate the models behavior

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Banduras Famous Bobo Doll Experiment

• Examined the influence of observational learning
  on aggressiveness in children
• All three groups viewed a film of an adult
  punching and verbally abusing a Bobo Doll
• Group One Adult was rewarded
• Group Two Adult was punished
• Group Three No consequences for the adult
• After the film, the children played in a room
  with toys (including a Bobo doll
• Adult rewarded group was most aggressive
• This showed that operant conditioning can take
  place through observation alone!!!
• Applications?

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Latent Learning

• Learning that is not revealed in performance
  immediately
• Revealed later when the behavior is reinforced
• Panic on test?
• Learning-performance distinction- learning may
  occur but may not always be measured by, or
  immediately evident in, performance

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Tolman Rat Study

• Tolman Rat Study To prove that learning can be
  latent (hidden), Tolman had three groups of rats
  run through mazes for 10 days
• Group One Rewarded for running through maze to
  end
• Group Two Un-rewarded
• Group Three Un-rewarded for 10 days/rewarded on
  the 11th
• The rats in group one (rewarded) learned to run
  through the maze with few errors
• The rats in groups two and three (no reward) did
  not run through the maze with ease
• On day 11, Tolman began rewarding Group Two.
  Once rewarded, these rats instantly became as
  efficient as the group that had been rewarded all
  along!

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Social Cognitive Learning Decreases the Fear of
Snakes

• Subjects with an intense fear of snakes were
  chosen for participation
• After watching a model handle a 4-foot snake, one
  group was invited to move closer to the snake
• Subjects were invited to touch the snake
• The group who watched the live model scored an
  average of 27 on the 29-step approach scale

Source Bar graph data from Relative Efficacy of
Desensitization and Modeling Approaches for
Inducing Behavior, Affective and Attitudinal
Changes by A. Bandura, E. B. Blanchard B.
Ritter, 1969, Journal of Personality and Social
Psychology, 13, 173-179.
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Imprinting

• Inherited tendencies that are displayed in
  newborn animals when they encounter certain
  stimuli in their environment
• Chicks, goslings, and ducks follow the first
  moving object they see
• Sensitive/Critical period
• Relatively brief time during which learning is
  most likely to occur

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Prepared Learning

• Innate tendency of animals to recognize, attend
  to, and store certain cues over others
• Nutcrackers have amazing memory to hide and find
  hundreds of hidden stores of food
• Humans are biologically prepared to make sounds

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Teaching Challenge

• Teach Skill Through Modeling

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Behavior Modification

• Treatment that changes problems or undesirable
  behaviors by using principles of learning based
  on operant conditioning, classical conditioning,
  and social cognitive learning
• Autism
• Marked by especially abnormal or impaired
  development in social interactions and
  communication abilities
• Signs usually appear when a child is 2 or 3 years
  old
• Dr. Lovaas training program uses behavior
  modification to teach autistic children language
  and social skills as well as self-help behaviors

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Assignment

• Personal Change Project 21 12

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Biofeedback

• Training procedure through which a person is made
  aware of his/her physiological responses such as
  muscle activity, heart rate, blood pressure, or
  temperature
• After becoming aware of these physiological
  responses, the person tries to control them to
  decrease psychosomatic problems
• Often used in conjunction with other types of
  medical treatment or psychotherapy

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Class Challenge

• Conditioning the Instructor 21

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Operant Conditioning

• Psych Sim 5.0

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Maze Learning

• Psych Sim 4.0