Analyzing

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Analyzing Evaluation of Arguments
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What is an argument?

• Forms of discourse (speech/writing) that attempt
  to persuade readers or listeners to accept a
  claim, whether acceptance is based on logical or
  emotional appeals or, is usually a case, on both.
• Statement or statements offering support for a
  claim.

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Components of argument
Claim Statement that is either true or false.
Must always have a truth value, i.e. it must be
true or false.
Support / Premise Consists of materials used by
arguer to convince the claim. Include evidence
motivational appeals.
Warrant / Conclusion An inference / assumption, a
belief / principle that is taken for granted.
Allow to make the connection between support
claim.
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Example

• Claim or not?
• Please shut the door behind you.
• Student in FSKTM like PBL class.
• Support / Premise
• 98 of the students in PBL class passed the exam.
• Warrant / Conclusion
• Most of the student in FSKTM like PBL class.

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The Claim
Fact Assert that a condition has existed, exists
or will exist based on facts or data that
objectively verifiable.
Value Attempt to prove that some things are more
or less desirable than others.
Policy Assert that specific policies should be
instituted as solutions to problems. E.g. should,
must, ought to, etc.
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Evaluating Argument

• Should be able to
• Identify assumptions
• Recognize contradictions
• Distinguish between fact opinion
• Recognize bias
• Distinguish between fact inference

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Examples

• Teaching is rewarding occupation you only work
  until 2.00p.m. It is a suitable profession for
  anyone who wants their afternoon free.
• MyKad has been produced with the most secure
  technology. It has been cloned once.

(assumptions).
(contradiction).
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Cont..

• Mount Kinabalu is a beautiful mountain.
• Mount Kinabalu is the highest peak in Southeast
  Asia.
• I dont think teaching in English is good and
  practical because my son is not able to
  understand what the teacher is talking about.

(opinion).
(fact).
(bias).
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Cont..

• You noticed that your friend is loosing weight,
  quieter than usual her face is sunken. When you
  asked Are you OK?, the replies Oh, Im fine.
  It would be reasonable to conclude
• She is on diet
• Suffering from some disease
• On hallucinatory drugs

• The conclusions is reasonable but not factual
  reports. It is called inferences.

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Reasons for using arguments
Persuading others E.g. She should marry you
because you are so good looking.
Making decisions E.g. Being a carpenter, because
you are good at working with your hands like
building things.
Explaining things E.g. You are late for an
important meeting, and the boss wants to know why.
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How to detect an argument
1. Search for premise conclusion indicator
words. E.g. Since, because, for, follows from,
therefore, thus, so, it follows that,
accordingly, etc.
2. Determine if the purpose of the words is to
persuade someone.
3. Make an effort to understand the context of
the passage in question.
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Examples (1)

• All Malaysians like badminton. Hafiz is a
  Malaysian. So, Hafiz likes badminton.
• April 28 is when federal income taxes are due.
  So, Malaysians take April 28 seriously.

• So (1) ? conclusion indicator.
• So (2) ? X conclusion indicator.

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Common Premise indicators

• As shown by
• Because
• Follows from
• For
• For the reason that
• Given that
• Since

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Common conclusion indicators

• Accordingly
• Consequently
• Hence
• In conclusion
• It follows that
• So
• Then
• Therefore
• Thus
• We can conclude that

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Examples (2)

• I was late for an appointment because my car
  broke down an accident slowed down the traffic.
• I think Bush was the worst person in the 21st
  century because he was responsible for the death
  of millions of people because he promoted hate
  violence.

• (1) ? explanation
• (2) ? arguments

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Examples (3)

• Suppose abortion is being discussed someone
  says, I disagree with you, let me tell you why.
  ? means that an argument will be forthcoming.
• Suppose you a friend are trying to figure out
  why the economy is doing so well. You ask, Why
  is it doing so well? she responds, How about
  the following reasons? ? although she is
  offering reasons, she is not trying to persuade
  you anything (not arguments).

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Other kinds of Non-Arguments

• Descriptions
• E.g.
• YAB Abdullah Badawi is a Prime Minister.
• Winters are cold in Alaska.
• My old brother is 45 years old.
• Ajai was a composer.

• Reports
• E.g.
• The dropping of atomic bombs on the Japanese
  cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. (1945)
• The formation of United Nations. (1945)
• The first human on the moon. (1969)

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Characteristics of Arguments
One important principle Principle of charity
when more than one reading of an argument is
possible, interpret the argument in the way most
flattering to its presenter
Elements of an arguments. Premise(s) Conclusion
Standard form for an argument. 1. Premise (1) 2.
Premise (2) . Conclusion
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Characteristics of Arguments (Cont.)
Inductive vs. Deductive arguments Deductive
premises guarantees the truth of the
conclusion. Inductive strong argument truth of
the premises ? conclusion probably true. Weak
argument truth of premises ? conclusion probably
not true.
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Examples

• Jorge Everyone should be a vegetarian.
• ?Thats a claim but not argument. For it to be
  argument, make a claim give some support or
  reasons for it.
• Jorge Everyone should be a vegetarian because my
  grandmother says so.
• ? Thats an argument. Made a claim everyone
  should be a vegetarian offered reason
  grandmother says so in support of it.

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Cont..

• Anyone who is out of food should buy some more.
• Lili is out of food.
• ____________________________
• .

• Lili should buy some food

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Cont..

• Most (80) of the people from Singapore has been
  infected with SARS.
• Joe is from Singapore.
• _____________________________
• .

Joe has been infected with SARS. ? Inductively
strong, conclusions contradictory they cannot
both be true.
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7 Good argument patterns

• Modus Ponens
• If A, then B.
• A.
• . B.
• e.g.
• If I study, then I will pass.
• I will study.

. I will pass.
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Modus Tollens

• If A, then B.
• Not B.
• . Not A.
• e.g.
• If Tamika is healthy, then shes happy.
• Tamika is not happy.

. Tamika is not healthy.
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Disjunctive argument

• Either A or B.
• Not A
• . B
• e.g.
• Either I sleep or eat
• I am not sleeping

. I am eating.
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Hypothetical Syllogism

• If A, then B.
• If B, then C.
• . If A, then C.
• e.g.
• If I work, then Ill get paid.
• If I get paid, then Ill be happy.

. If I work, then Ill be happy.
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Chain argument

• A
• If A, then B.
• If B, then C.
• . C.
• e.g.
• Antoine is short.
• If Antoine is short, then Camille wont date him.
• If Camille wont date him, then Antoine will ask
  Donna out.

. Antoinne will ask Donna out.
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Predicate Instantiation

• All As are Bs.
• M is an A.
• . M is a B.
• e.g.
• All carpenters are good at building.
• Mahmud is a carpenter.

. Mahmud is good at building.
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Universal Syllogism

• All As are Bs.
• All Bs are Cs.
• . All As are Cs.
• e.g.
• All whales are mammals.
• All mammals nurse their young.

. All whales nurse their young.
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Missing parts of arguments

• Implicit Premises
• E.g.
• If Lukes loves Laura, then he will treat her
  well.
• He often does not treat her well._____________
• . ?
• If A, then B.
• Not B._____
• . ?

• Implicit conclusions
• E.g.
• If Brian is late, then Gail will be angry.
• Brian is late.____
• . Gail will be angry.
• If A, then B.
• A.____________
• . B. (implicit)

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Distinguishing Good Arguments from Bad Ones.

• Validity
• All whales are mammals
• All mammals nurse their young.________
• . All whales nurse their young.
• ? Conclusion follows from the premises. Premises
  true conclusion true valid.

• Soundness
• If and only if
• It is valid
• All premise are reasonable or rationally
  acceptable.