Eco-design IX

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Eco-design IX

• Strategies

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Contents

• Overview of the Strategies
• Strategy 1 New Concept Development
• Strategy 2 Physical Optimization
• Strategy 3 Optimize Material Use
• Strategy 4 Optimize Production Techniques
• Strategy 5 Optimize Distribution System
• Strategy 6 Reduce Impact During Use
• Strategy 7 Optimize End-of-Life Systems

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Overview of the Strategies
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Strategy 1  New Concept Development
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• New concept development strategy can lead to
  revolutionary changes in reducing the
  environmental impact of products and services. It
  focuses on
• basic assumptions regarding the function of a
  product.
• determining the end-users' needs.
• how the specific product will meet end-users'
  needs.
• If you wish to apply Strategy 1, you should do so
  prior to product development. Its application may
  lead you to discovering alternate way to fulfil
  the needs of users.

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New concept development - substrategies

• 1.1 Dematerialization
• 1.2 Increase Shared Use
• 1.3 Provide a Service

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1.1  Dematerialization (cont.)
Your designers should conduct an in-depth
analysis of end-users' needs to identify the true
value or service that a product provides before
exploring new product concepts which may involve
immaterial solutions. This strategy often leads
to an exploration into 1.2 Increase Shared Use
and 1.3 Provide a Service as alternative ways to
add value for users. Companies, over a period of
time, often make evolutionary changes to their
products within along-term strategy of
dematerialization.
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1.1  Dematerialization (cont.)
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1.1  Dematerialization e.g.
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1.2  Increase Shared Use (cont.)

• The benefits of applying this strategy are
• More efficient use of products.
• Reduced material (1.1 Dematerialization), energy
  and transportation costs due to the production
  and distribution of fewer products.
• Increased ability for manufacturers to track the
  use and life span of their products.
• Facilitation of disposal and/or recycling of the
  product.

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1.3  Provide a Service (cont.)
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1.3  Provide a Service (cont.)
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1.3  Provide a Service example 1
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1.3  Provide a Service example 2
Rental services provide a single piece of
equipment, which is often complex or expensive,
to multiple users. A well-organized rental
service company can maximize the utility and life
span of a single unit before the product is no
longer usable and, simultaneously, realize a good
income from customer use. Good examples of
products that are used by rental companies are
photocopiers, laundry equipment, hardware and
construction tools. Contents
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Strategy 2 Physical Optimization
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Introduction

• Physical Optimization strategy, which is both
  qualitative and quantitative in nature, covers
  aspects of a product's form, aesthetics and
  materials as well as the human responses to the
  product. In some cases, the application of this
  strategy can lead to significant, if not
  revolutionary, improvements in environmental
  aspects of a product.
• The activities in this strategy, while
  complementing 3 Optimize Material Use and 4
  Optimize Production Techniques, are typically
  undertaken during the Conceptual and Preliminary
  phases of the design process. To follow this
  strategy, you will need an in-depth understanding
  of the product's position in the market with
  respect to environmental concerns and a thorough
  knowledge of user needs.

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This strategy focuses on

• enhancing a product's function and life span with
  the added benefit of improving its environmental
  profile,
• designing its physical characteristics, features
  or components with the aim of increasing value
  for the end-user.

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The strategy is geared to

• Optimizing the product's function.
• Extending the technical life span, i.e., the time
  during which a product functions well.
• Extending the aesthetic life span, i.e., the time
  during which a user finds the product attractive.

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• Designers who balance and optimize the technical
  and aesthetic life-span requirements for a
  product can reduce the energy and materials
  dedicated to these requirements. In some cases,
  this may mean designing for a short life span in
  others, for a longer life span.
• A company may prefer that a product have a
  shorter life span if, as is the case with engine
  technology and emissions controls, newer and less
  energy-intensive alternatives are under
  development, and the company is confident
  customers will upgrade or purchase the more
  efficient products.
• A company will offer a product with a long life
  span when it is important to the overall
  economics or use of that product. For example,
  new high-performance, sealed-glazing window units
  offer superior energy efficiency and lead to more
  comfortable indoor living. However, such units
  are initially higher in cost, and users must be
  confident they will benefit from a purchase for
  many years. Therefore, it becomes a priority for
  the manufacturer to design a system with a long
  life span and, preferably, back that up with a
  good guarantee.

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Physical optimisation - example

• In the early 1990s, a consumer journal rated Sony
  Europe's TV well below competitors on
  Environmental Performance. Sony realized that to
  achieve market leadership, it would have to focus
  on environmental issues. As one manager put it
  "If we fail with the environmental features, we
  can never reach the Best Buy qualification." The
  redesigned TV eliminated hazardous materials,
  being halogen-free and not using antimony
  trioxide and PVC. It also had 52 per cent fewer
  plastics and less total material overall. As
  well, Sony ensured that the TV could be
  disassembled quickly, as it now had only nine
  screws. The result was that its recyclability
  increased to 99 per cent.
• A major plus for Sony was that the TV now costs
  30 per cent less to produce and is assembled much
  faster.

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Physical optimisation - substrategies

• 2.1 Integrate Product Functions
• 2.2 Optimize Product Functions
• 2.3 Increase Reliability and Durability
• 2.4 Facilitate Easy Maintenance and Repair
• 2.5 Modular Product Structure
• 2.6 Strong User-product Relationship

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2.1 Integrate Product Functions
Material and space can be saved when you
integrate several functions or products into a
single product by taking advantage of common
components such as power supplies, keypads,
structural chassis and displays.
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2.1 Integrate Product Functions - examples

• Manufacturers who produce combination TV-VCR
  units have found a niche market with people who
  live in small spaces or require ease of
  portability.
• By combining the alternator with the starter
  motor in new cars, some automobile manufacturers
  have eliminated the need for two devices and are
  contributing to energy efficiency through vehicle
  "lightweighting."
• Manufacturers are now combining a printer, fax,
  scanner and copier into a single multi-purpose
  machine. Common components such as the printing
  mechanism, power supply and scanning assembly
  perform several different functions.

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2.2 Optimize Product Functions
When analyzing a product's primary and secondary
functions, designers may discover that some
components are superfluous. For example,
secondary functions such as the quality or status
expressed by a product can often be achieved in
an improved and less polluting way.
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2.2 Optimize Product Functions Stage 1

• Ask questions that lead to a better understanding
  of end-users' purchase decisions and what they
  consider important in a product.
• What are the product's primary functions for
  users?
• What are its secondary functions?
• Are the functions utilitarian or aesthetic in
  nature?

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2.2 Optimize Product Functions Stage 2

• Analyze and synthesize the costs of manufacture,
  materials, processes, assembly, labour and
  overhead. In this respect, the strategy is
  similar to value engineering, a branch of
  industrial engineering that provides a systematic
  method for studying a product in order to meet
  its optimum cost.

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2.2 Optimize Product Functions Stage 3

• Format the data into an analysis matrix a
  technique used by value engineers. In the table
• Primary and secondary functions are listed in
  priority by column.
• Individual parts are listed by row.
• Part cost is positioned where function and parts
  meet in the matrix.
• This matrix allows designers and engineers to
  establish the value of each function and identify
  the minimal cost required to produce a part in
  order to satisfy the function.

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Example of an analysis matrix used in value
engineering
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Köögikombain
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2.3 Increase Reliability and Durability
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Textured surface finishes on injection-moulded
parts.

• Providing a gripping surface and indicating touch
  areas.
• Hiding sink-and-flow marks and blemishes.

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Design for impact resistance in injection
moulding.

• Increase impact resistance by spreading the
  impact load over a large area of a part or
  product.
• Look for a balance between introducing
  rigidifying features, e.g., ribs, and the ability
  of the part to absorb an impact through flexing.

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2.4 Facilitate Easy Maintenance and Repair

• Ensuring that a product will be cleaned,
  maintained and repaired on time will increase its
  usability and life span.
• User maintenance Providing easy-to-follow
  instructions on regular maintenance and simple
  repairs can reduce the costs associated with
  transport of products for repairs and
  maintenance. A product's ease of maintenance and
  repair is often dependent upon its
  reliability/durability and the positive attitude
  of the user to the product. (2.3 Reliability and
  Durability and 2.6 Strong User-product
  Relationship).
• Manufacturer maintenance When a product is too
  complex for user maintenance, you should
  consider
• how the product can be transported to a repair
  facility.
• The skills and tools required by service
  personnel.
• The ease or difficulty of disassembling of the
  product.
• Developing a modular structure for the product.
  (2.5 Modular Product Structure)

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Follow these strategies for facilitating repair
and maintenance

• Indicate clearly on the product how it should be
  opened for cleaning or repair (for example, where
  to apply leverage with a screwdriver to open snap
  connections).
• Indicate on the product which parts must be
  cleaned or maintained in a specific way (for
  example, by colour-coded lubricating points).
• Indicate on the product any parts or
  subassemblies that must be inspected often, due
  to rapid wear.
• Make the location of wear on the product
  detectable so that repair or replacement can take
  place on time.
• Locate the parts that wear relatively quickly
  close to one another and within easy reach so
  that replacements can be easily fitted.
• Make the most vulnerable components easy to
  dismantle for repair or replacement.

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2.5 Modular Product Structure

• A modular structure makes it possible to
  revitalize a product from a technical or
  aesthetic point of view, enabling the product to
  keep pace with the changing needs of the
  end-user.
• As well, a modular structure allows the benefits
  of a new technology to be incorporated into an
  older product. As a result, a modular product may
  undergo several upgrades in components over its
  life span, reducing the need for new products to
  be purchased on a more frequent basis.

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Designers and product engineers can design
product that enable

• Upgrades at a later date, e.g., plugging in
  larger memory units in computers.
• Renewal of technically or aesthetically outdated
  elements, e.g., making furniture with replaceable
  covers that can be removed and cleaned.
• Facilitation of repair and maintenance by
  grouping high-wear components together into
  sub-assemblies. (2.4 Facilitate Easy Maintenance
  and Repair)

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Can a standard be established?

• A modular product structure requires the design
  of a product system or a connection standard
  between components. If you're considering such an
  approach, you should attempt to estimate the
  technical life span of the underlying system or
  standard. Questions to ask
• Can the standard be internal to my products?
• Will competitors in the market agree to an
  industry standard?
• However, products undergoing rapid evolution may
  not be suitable for such an approach.

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Modular Product Structure - example

• The 35 mm single lens reflex camera is an
  excellent example of a modular product structure.
  Within a particular company's product line,
  camera bodies, lenses, bellows, flash attachments
  and filters can be replaced and are often
  backwards compatible with components manufactured
  several years, or even decades, before.

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2.6 Strong User-product Relationship

• Industrial design, or product design, is a
  process which matches, in a creative way, the
  technologies of production with end-user needs.
  Good design transcends changes in the
  technologies of production. On a societal level,
  however, ideas of good design are dependent on
  the culture of the time. The challenge for many
  companies and designers is to create products
  which users will find attractive to purchase, use
  and maintain.
• The objective of this strategy is to avoid design
  that may cause the user to replace the product as
  soon as the design becomes unfashionable. The
  psychological life span is the time in which
  products are perceived and used as worthy
  objects. Products should have the material
  ability, i.e., technical and aesthetic life span,
  as well as the immaterial opportunity to age in a
  dignified way.
• Most products need maintenance and repair to
  remain attractive and functional.
  (2.4 Facilitate Easy Maintenance and Repair)
  Users are only willing to spend time on such
  activities if they care about a product.

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You can aim to produce a strong user-product
relationship by

• Creating a design that more than meets the
  (possibly hidden) requirements of the user for a
  long time.
• Designing surface finishes that improve
  gracefully with age.
• Ensuring that maintenance and repair will be
  pleasurable rather than tedious.
• Ensuring that maintenance can be conducted safely
  with minimal tools.
• Providing added value in terms of design and
  functionality so that the user will be reluctant
  to replace the product.

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Strong User-product Relationship - example

• The Thonet Model No.14 chair has been in
  production since 1859 with the 50th million model
  sold circa 1930. The chair is comprised of six
  bent wood components, 10 screws and two nuts. The
  Model No.14 chair is an excellent example of a
  product that has transcended advances in
  technology and cultural change, and still remains
  in fashion.
• Contents

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Strategy 3 Optimize Material Use

• Select the most environmentally appropriate
  materials, substances and surface treatments for
  a product.

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Introduction

• Use of environmentally hazardous materials
  involves costs for health and safety, handling
  and waste disposal. This strategy focuses on
  selecting the most environmentally appropriate
  materials, substances and surface treatments for
  product manufacture.
• When applying this strategy, you will find that
  it depends largely on product characteristics and
  life cycle, and that there can be many trade-offs
  when making decisions regarding materials
  selection.

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Some factors to consider

• Whether materials can be recycled.
• The priority of material recycleability for
  short-lived products as compared to long-lived
  products.
• Whether products that consume energy during their
  use-phase can be "lightweighted" to reduce energy
  demand.
• If products that disperse or wear out need to be
  recycled as compared to products that can be
  easily collected at their end-of-life-phase.
• If you have a system where product disposal is
  important, how will material chemistry impact the
  environment and human health through traditional
  disposal methods.

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Example

• Kuntz Electroplating Inc., an Ontario company,
  designed a Cyanide Hydrolysis System(CHS) to
  destroy their hazardous chemicals in an
  environmentally safe and cost-effective manner.
  As a result, Kuntz has significantly reduced the
  use of sodium hypochlorite, caustic soda,
  hydrochloric acid and chlorine. The new system
  also reduces the amount of required labour. CHS
  has saved Kuntz 150,000 annually.

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Substrategies

• 3.1 Cleaner Materials
• 3.2 Renewable Materials
• 3.3 Lower "Embodied Energy" Materials
• 3.4 Recycled Materials
• 3.5 Recyclable Materials
• 3.6 Reduce Material Usage

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3.1 Cleaner Materials

• Some materials or additives are best avoided
  because they cause hazardous emissions during
  production, when they are incinerated, or if they
  are used as landfill. Examples are
• colourants
• heat or UV stabilizers
• fire retardants
• degreasers
• softening agents
• fillers
• foaming agents
• antioxidants
• Some colourants and fire-retardants are
  especially hazardous and, in many countries, are
  restricted by law.

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Alert toxic materials.

• Many substances that contribute to ozone layer
  depletion are now forbidden or restricted such as
  methyl bromide, halons, CFCs and HCFCs. Many
  large corporations are practising materials
  de-selection by developing their own lists of
  substances banned from internal use such as
  mercury, lead, VOCs and PVC. This practice is a
  growing trend and has a direct impact on
  suppliers.

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3.2 Renewable Materials

• Renewable materials are substances derived from a
  living tree, plant, animal or ecosystem which has
  the ability to regenerate itself.
• The use of renewable materials can represent a
  good environmental and societal choice since
  these materials
• Will not be depleted if managed properly as a
  renewable resource.
• May have reduced net emissions of CO2 across
  their life cycle as compared to materials derived
  from fossil fuels.
• Result in biodegradable waste.
• Can be grown and used locally--a situation that
  promotes employment.

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3.2 Renewable Materials (cont.)

• However, when considering the use of a renewable
  material, you should assess its full
  environmental impact. For instance, the plastic
  sack may be a better environmental choice than
  one made of paper. In a life-cycle analysis, a
  factor that becomes important is the superior
  ratio of strength to weight of plastics that
  leads to lower energy requirements and costs for
  transport.
• If you are interested in using more renewable
  materials in your product, check your suppliers'
  product labels to see if you can find out
• The quality and consistency of organic materials
  that are sourced from renewable stocks.
• If the materials have been harvested and the
  stocks managed in an environmentally preferable
  manner.

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Examples

• Products like oriented strand board (OSB) are
  enabling builders to make better use of the
  renewable resource of wood than they have in the
  past. Waste is virtually eliminated in the OSB
  production phase with 90 per cent of the wood
  incorporated directly and 10 per cent used as an
  energy source. The wood strands are combined with
  a resin binder and put under intense pressure and
  heat to form structural panels. The
  phenol-formaldehyde resins lead to extremely low
  levels of off-gassing. Indoor air quality
  problems that have been associated with wood
  products using urea-formaldehyde binders are thus
  avoided.
• Other combinations of resin, wood fibre and maize
  fillers have been used in injection-moulding
  processes for products such as door handles,
  latches and decorative details. Researchers are
  now conducting studies to explore better ways of
  using lignin, a natural binding agent in trees.

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3.3 Lower "Embodied Energy" Materials

• The embodied energy of a material refers to the
  energy used to extract, process and refine it
  before use in product manufacture. Therefore, a
  correlation exists between the number and type of
  processing steps and the embodied energy of
  materials. For example, the fewer and simpler the
  extraction, processing and refining steps
  involved in a material's production, the lower
  its embodied energy. The embodied energy of a
  material is often reflected in its price.

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3.3 Lower "Embodied Energy" Materials (cont.)

• In some cases, the most technically appropriate
  material will lower energy costs over the life
  cycle of a product. For example, composite
  materials involving carbon fibres or ceramic
  compounds may have a relatively high embodied
  energy, but when they are used appropriately,
  they can save energy in a product's use-phase due
  to their advanced physical properties, e.g.,
  strength, stiffness, heat or wear resistance.
• On the other hand, materials with less embodied
  energy may often be substituted without a loss in
  product performance, if you optimize the use of
  the material with respect to the product's
  reliability/durability and technical/aesthetic
  functions. ( 2 Physical Optimization)

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3.4 Recycled Materials

• This strategy focuses on production use of
  recycled materials, i.e., those used in products
  before. If suitable, companies can use and re-use
  these materials in order to maximize invested
  resources.
• Recycling provides cost-benefits, can enhance
  product production, and is an excellent
  environmental choice.
• By implementing product take-back programs,
  companies have a cost-effective source of
  materials and/or parts.
• Using recycled materials can lower the embodied
  energy needed to produce a product by avoiding
  the energy costs associated with extraction.
  (3.3 Lower "Embodied Energy" Materials)
• Unique features of recycled materials such as
  variations in colour and texture can be
  advantageous when used appropriately in product
  production. This can include using recycled
  paper, steel, aluminum, other metals and plastics.

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There are two sources for recycled materials.

• 1. Industrial off-specification material
  generated from an industrial process, and not
  used.
• 2. Post-consumer material recovered after use
  from an industrial or domestic setting. This
  material is typically collected, sorted and
  cleaned, but may still be contaminated by foreign
  material.

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Tips

• Currently, many recycled materials come from
  industrial sources and have minimal impurities
  and only slightly inferior properties to the
  originals. Nevertheless, if you decide to use
  recycled materials, you should
• Specify the required performance properties of
  the recycled material to control the physical
  characteristics.
• Establish a quality assurance requirement with
  your supplier regarding recycled material.
• Be aware that the cost of recycled materials
  depends on their source, percentage of virgin
  material content, level of contamination and
  physical characteristics.

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Some guidelines for designing with recycled
plastics.

• 1. Specify thicker walls or features that enhance
  rigidity in a design where increased strength
  must compensate for reduced strength in material.
  
• 2. Select applications where colour is not
  critical when recycled plastics come with a
  variety of colourants. Additional colourants may
  mask the original colour of the material.
• 3. Select processes that have a wide "operating
  window," i.e., the production parameters do not
  have to be tightly specified for successful
  manufacturing. Of the processes generally in use
  today, the most forgiving would be compression
  moulding, injection moulding, and extrusion.
  Other processes could be used if the behaviour of
  the material is comparable to that of suitable
  grades of new plastics.
• 4. Apply specialized processing methods that
  allow significant quantities of recycled plastics
  to be used successfully.

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Co-extrusion (koospressimine)

• This process, which can be used in sheet, film
  and blow-moulding operations, makes a
  multi-layered product that can have a middle
  layer of recycled plastics sandwiched between
  layers of new plastic.

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Sandwich Injection Moulding

• This is a similar technique to co-extrusion in
  which recycled plastics are injected as the bulky
  core of thick-walled plastic products and new
  plastic is used only for the outer skin.

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Foamed Extrusion and Foamed Injection Moulding

• These techniques use gases to form bubbles in
  plastics that reduce the weight of thick-walled
  products and produce a textured skin on the
  surface. They provide good rigidity through
  enlarged thickness.

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Extrusion and Injection Moulding of Mixed Plastics

• These processes provide good potential for the
  use of recycled material because they eliminate
  the need for sorting or cleaning prior to
  processing. However, the products may have
  limited strength due to the incompatibility of
  different plastics and the contaminants. These
  processes usually use polyethylene as a "binder"
  for the other plastics and contaminants, thereby
  tending to limit a product's physical
  characteristics to those of polyethylene, i.e.,
  generally low in rigidity and strength, and prone
  to display "creep" behaviour. As well, the colour
  is usually dark due to the variety of
  incorporated colourants.

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3.5 Recyclable Materials

• Recyclable materials are those that can be
  easily recycled, depending on the type of
  material and the available recycling
  infrastructure. Reducing the amount of waste your
  company sends to landfill can produce significant
  cost-savings. Or, your waste materials could be a
  source of income.

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If you wish to use recyclable materials, you need
to

• Know which materials are recyclable.
• Find out if collection systems are in place or
  anticipated.
• Ensure the material will produce high-quality
  material when recycled.

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Product design can make a significant
contribution to recyclability. Here are some
criteria to follow

• Select just one type of material for the product
  as a whole or for each sub-assembly.
• If selecting one type of material is not
  practical, select plastics in mutually compatible
  groups, i.e., SAN, ABS, PC, PMMA PC, PET or
  PVC, SAN, PMMA.
• Don't cross-contaminate metals, e.g., mixing
  steel components with copper aluminum with
  copper or iron or copper with mercury or
  beryllium.
• To aid recycling, avoid materials which are
  difficult to separate such as compound materials,
  laminates, fillers, fire-retardants and
  fibreglass reinforcements.
• Choose recyclable materials for which a market
  already exists.
• Avoid polluting elements such as stickers that
  interfere with recycling, or glues and small
  components that are not removable.

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Recyclable materials - examples

• Fir Tree Farm in Nova Scotia prepares packaged
  vegetables for "ready meals." This produces a
  large amount of organic and packaging waste. By
  separating and recycling all cardboard, as well
  as selling organic waste as pig and cattle feed,
  Fir Tree Farm now saves over 3,000 each month in
  landfill fees.
• Canadian General-Tower Limited (CGT), a vinyl
  manufacturer in Ontario, is using recyclable
  materials in two ways--one, as a source of
  income, and two, as a source of savings. In 1996,
  CGT sold more than 950,000 kg of pool vinyl to a
  local company, Norwich Plastics. In the same
  year, CGT reprocessed 1.8 million kg back into
  their own vinyl production, saving thousands of
  dollars and benefitting the environment.

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3.6 Reduce Material Usage

• This strategy focuses on optimizing the volume
  and weight of materials so less energy is used
  during production, transport and storage. This
  strategy can improve the productivity of your
  material resources and save on raw material
  consumption and transportation costs.
• Products are often deliberately designed to be
  heavy or large in order to project a quality
  image. However, a quality image can be achieved
  through other techniques, i.e., creating a lean
  but strong design. While products cannot be made
  so light that their technical life is affected,
  you many find that, in many cases, a reduction in
  the weight or volume of materials is possible.

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Reduction of weight

• Using less material is a simple, direct means to
  decrease environmental impact, i.e., fewer
  resources extracted, less waste and lower
  environmental-loadings during transportation. If
  you are interested in reducing material usage,
  you should closely scrutinize appropriate
  materials and design, e.g., reinforcing ribs
  instead of using thick-walled components. Weight
  reduction can significantly lower material use
  and costs.

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Reduction in (transport) volume

• When a product and its packaging are reduced in
  size and volume, more products can be shipped
  more efficiently in a given transport mode.
  Consider foldable or stackable designs and final
  product assembly at the retail location or by the
  end-user.

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Reduce material usage - example

• S.C. Johnson Wax has saved over 5 million by
  "lightweighting" its candle and aerosol products.
  It reduced the weight of its Glade candles by six
  per cent, decreasing material use by 1,536 tons
  and increasing shipping efficiency without a
  reduction in the life or quality of the candles.
  As well, it reduced the amount of material used
  in its aerosol products, cutting plastic use by
  1,200 tons and packing material by 600 tons.
• Contents

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Strategy 4 Optimize Production Techniques

• Implement cleaner production practices through
  the continuous use of industrial processes and
  products that increase efficiency prevent
  pollution to air, water and land and minimize
  risk to human health and the environment.

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Introduction

• This strategy include approaches to production
  that involve practices for "cleaner" production,
  i.e., the continuous use of industrial processes
  and products to increase efficiency, prevent
  pollution to all media (air, water and land), and
  to generally minimize risk to human health and
  the environment.
• To accomplish cleaner production, you need to
  adopt a goal to make your processes as
  environmentally benign as possible.

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Production techniques should

• Minimize the use of ancillary materials
  (abimaterjalid) and energy.
• Avoid hazardous compounds.
• Provide high efficiency production with low
  material losses.
• Generate as little waste as possible.

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Process improvements are an effective strategy to
reduce pollution and can provide many
cost-benefits by

• Improving efficiency and reducing costly
  production downtime.
• Increasing regulatory compliance and reducing
  fines.

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Relation with Environmental Management Systems

• Improving production processes is a key component
  of Environmental Management Systems like ISO
  14001 which, although a voluntary program,
  requires organizations to make specific
  commitments to preventing pollution.
• This strategy can be applied both to the
  production processes of the parent company and
  its suppliers. In fact, many companies now insist
  that suppliers have an Environmental Management
  System (EMS) registered to the ISO 14001
  standard.

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Substrategies

• 4.1 Alternative Production Techniques
• 4.2 Fewer Production Steps
• 4.3 Lower/Cleaner Energy Consumption
• 4.4 Less Production Waste
• 4.5 Fewer/Cleaner Production Consumables

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4.1 Alternative Production Techniques

• Implementing an Environmental Management System
  (EMS) provides an effective way to examine an
  existing production system and pinpoint areas
  where changes could be made to bring about
  positive environmental benefits, compliance with
  environmental regulations and cost-savings.(Enviro
  nmental Management System)
• Alternative, cleaner production techniques can
  help you realize the benefits of process
  optimization, quality control, energy
  conservation and preventive management. It can
  also lower energy and costs associated with

• raw materials
• energy
• labour

• treatment and disposal
• insurance and liability

83
4.1 Alternative Production Techniques - example

• Jenks Cattell Engineering Limited, a small
  enterprise in England, manufactures pressings and
  welded assemblies for the automotive industry.
  During an environmental review of company
  processes in 1993, Jenks Cattell managers
  decided to replace the solvent degreasing agent
  1,1,1-trichloro-ethane, thereby significantly
  reducing the environmental impact as well as
  their costs by more than 20,000 per year. Jenks
  Cattell went on to implement EMS and use the
  principles of cleaner production. The company
  saved more than 150,000 annually by using
  material resources more effectively and reducing
  energy use, solvent emissions and neighbourhood
  noise.

84
4.2 Fewer Production Steps

• Each step of a production process increases
  financial costs and may also increase the
  environmental impact. The optimization of product
  production with respect to steps, techniques and
  processes should be undertaken by a team of
  product designers, industrial and mechanical
  engineers, and production personnel. The team
  should analyze the following

85
The team should analyze the following

• The possibility of satisfying several product
  functions through one component or part.
• Allowing multiple production steps to be
  performed on a single part or component
  simultaneously.
• Allowing single production steps to be performed
  on multiple parts or components simultaneously.
• Reducing the movement/transport distances of
  parts and components within the production
  facility.
• Using materials that do not require additional
  surface treatment or finishing for performance or
  aesthetics.

86
4.3 Lower/Cleaner Energy Consumption

• This strategy focuses on making production
  processes more energy efficient.
• Your company can implement rewards-and-recognitio
  n policies to motivate employees to generate
  energy-saving ideas. Have them explore how to
• Use cleaner energy sources such as natural gas,
  wind, hydro or solar energy, in order to replace
  existing sources that are more polluting or
  inefficient.
• Introduce a co-generation system that uses
  production by-products, e.g., steam or heat, to
  provide heating, cooling or compressed air.
• Examine carefully the heating/ventilation/energy
  needs and set up systems and controls tailored to
  those needs.
• Increase efficiency of compressed air systems.
• Optimize the facility's space requirements.

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4.4 Less Production Waste

• In applying this strategy, you would be
  optimizing production processes with respect to
  the output of waste and emissions. This
  optimization increases the efficiency of material
  use and decreases the amount of material sent to
  a landfill by reducing the "non-product output"
  per unit of production. To achieve this goal,
  consider
• Selecting shapes that eliminate processes such as
  sawing, turning, milling, pressing and punching
  in order to reduce waste.
• Motivating production teams and suppliers to
  reduce waste and cut the percentage of rejects.
• Looking for opportunities to recycle production
  residues in-house--a process that saves resources
  and money. Relatively simple changes with little
  cost-output can save your company thousands of
  dollars a year.

88
Less Production Waste - example

• Entek International Ltd., a company based in
  Oregon and the UK, produces microporous
  polyethylene battery separator materials. Entek
  purchased a machine for 250,000 to granulate its
  plastic waste, which could then be re-used in the
  company's manufacturing process. As a result,
  Entek is saving over 100,000 each month--more
  than 1 million per year--in reduced landfill,
  labour and raw material costs. Their granulator
  paid for itself in three months.

89
4.5 Fewer/Cleaner Production Consumables

• This strategy focuses on reducing the production
  consumables or ancillary materials required for
  product production and/or using "cleaner" ones.
• When applying this strategy, have your designers
  and production and industrial engineers conduct
  an analysis of consumables in the production
  process. The use of water, solvents, degreasers,
  oil/lubricants, abrasives, solders and cutting
  tools can be correlated with per unit production.

90
4.5 Fewer/Cleaner Production Consumables (cont.)

• Designers should specify materials/parts/component
  s that are also cleaner and non-hazardous. For
  example, identifying and using solvents,
  lubricants or degreasers with low volatile
  organic compounds (VOCs) can reduce the use of
  ventilation systems and/or pollution prevention
  equipment.
• Together with reducing waste during production
  and establishing in-house recycling programs, the
  re-design of parts/components is an effective
  means of reducing the use of production
  consumables.
• Contents

91
Strategy 5 Optimize Distribution Systems

• Transport products from producer to distributor,
  retailer and user in the most efficient manner.

92
Introduction

• Application of this strategy ensures that
  products are transported from the producer to the
  distributor, retailer and end-user in the most
  efficient manner possible. The factors involved
  in optimization include
• packaging
• mode of transport
• mode of storage/handling
• logistics
• If you decide to apply this strategy, you should
  consider product development separately from
  packaging development since packages have their
  own life cycles and associated environmental
  impacts.
• You can also apply other DfE Strategies to
  packaging development and use. (3 Optimize
  Material Use, 4 Optimize Production, 7 Optimize
  End-of-Life Systems)

93
Substrategies

• 5.1 Less/Cleaner/Re-usable Packaging
• 5.2 Energy-efficient Transport Mode
• 5.3 Energy-efficient Logistics

94
5.1 Less/Cleaner/Re-usable Packaging

• This strategy focuses on reducing packaging for
  marketing and transport purposes, resulting in
  less waste, less energy for transport, less
  emissions and greater savings. By reducing the
  amount and weight of packaging, your company can
  save on landfill and resources.

95
Here are some ideas for applying this strategy.

• If your packaging provides aesthetic appeal to
  your product, use an attractive but lean design
  to achieve the same effect.
• For transport and bulk packaging, consider
  re-usable materials in combination with a return
  system between yourself and the retailer and, if
  possible, between the retailer and end-user.
  Consider a package deposit/refund to encourage
  use of this system.
• Use appropriate materials, e.g., recyclable
  materials for non-returnable packaging, and more
  durable materials for returnable packaging.
• Reduce volume, e.g., providing foldability and
  nesting of products by using a modular structure.
  (2 Physical Optimization)
• Encourage your suppliers to also reduce their
  packaging waste.

96
The major benefits of using fewer/cleaner
production consumables are reductions in

• Production costs.
• Material storage/handling requirements and costs.
  
• Costs involved in the disposal of hazardous
  consumable waste.
• Raw materials/consumables.
• Need/use of ventilation equipment and costs of
  maintenance.
• Equipment, e.g., ducts, motors, balancing.
• Operating costs.
• Need for pollution prevention equipment.
• Health and safety costs, e.g., worker training
  and protective equipment.
• Costs of regulatory compliance.

97
Less/Cleaner/Re-usable Packaging - example

• In the early 1990s, Nissan had its suppliers
  become accountable for their own packaging waste.
  By 1996, over 97 per cent of 9,750 parts arriving
  at one of the company's plants came in re-usable
  containers. This not only saved Nissan and its
  suppliers money, but also eliminated waste
  entirely instead of redirecting it into
  recycling.

98
5.2 Energy-efficient Transport Mode

• The environmental impact of product transport
  comes primarily from energy consumed and air
  pollutant emissions. A consideration of this
  impact is important in a full-company program of
  environmental responsibility. As well, choosing
  energy-efficient transport can directly affect
  your bottom line as it will make your company
  more resilient to energy price fluctuations.

99
When deciding how to ship your products, consider
many factors such as

• price
• volume
• reliability
• time to delivery
• distance to customer
• environmental impact

100
Energy-efficient Transport Mode - additional
guidelines

• Have your designers, shipper/receivers and sales
  personnel compare the various modes of transport,
  i.e., foot, bicycle, courier, truck, rail, sea,
  air, with the above factors to determine the most
  appropriate mode of product transport.
• Also investigate your suppliers' modes of
  transport for materials and components. Your
  costs can be reduced if energy-efficient modes
  are used throughout the supply, production and
  distribution chain.

101
Fuel-efficient fleet operations.

• Install fuel-efficient computerized diesel
  engines to lower maintenance and operating costs.
  
• Specify fuel-efficient vehicles.
• Perform regular maintenance to reduce emissions.
• Convert your fleet to alternative fuels such as
  propane, natural gas or bi-fuel, e.g.,
  gasoline/natural gas.
• Install on-board computers to help reduce fuel
  wastage by controlling idling speed and setting
  upper-speed limits.
• Install an on-site vehicle refueling service to
  reduce fuel costs and enhance fleet efficiency.

102
5.3 Energy-efficient Logistics

• Efficient routing of transportation and
  distribution can significantly reduce the
  environmental impact of a company's logistics
  system. You might consider the following
• Motivate your sales personnel to work with local
  suppliers to avoid longer product-transport
  distances.
• Motivate your sales personnel to introduce
  efficient forms of distribution, e.g., the
  simultaneous distribution of larger amounts of
  different goods.
• Use standardized transport and bulk packaging,
  e.g. industry-standard pallets, boxes or bags.
• Use route-optimization software to reduce
  product-transport distances.
• If you are a just-in-time supplier, provide
  re-useable/returnable containers designed for
  your products.
• Reduce warehouse distance--from storage to
  loading--for high-turnaround products.
  Contents

103
Strategy 6 Reduce Impact During Use

• Design a product so that end-users will be able
  to make efficient use of product consumables such
  as energy, water and detergent, and secondary
  products such as batteries, refills and filters.

104
Introduction

• Many products consume considerable energy, water
  and/or other consumables during their life span.
  Resources consumed in maintenance and repair can
  add to the environmental impact. This strategy
  focuses on product design to reduce environmental
  impact during product use.

105
Substrategies

• 6.1 Lower Energy Consumption
• 6.2 Cleaner Energy Sources
• 6.3 Reduce Use of Consumables
• 6.4 Cleaner Consumables and Auxiliary Products
• 6.5 Reduce Energy and Other Consumable Waste

106
6.1 Lower Energy Consumption

• The goal of this strategy is to achieve energy
  efficiency and/or the use of more environmentally
  responsible energy sources during product use.
• It's important! Environmental analyses of durable
  products such as refrigerators and washing
  machines show that the largest environmental
  impacts can come during the use-phase of a
  product's life cycle. As a result, the
  operational costs over the product's lifetime can
  often exceed the initial purchase price. When
  users are made aware of the importance of these
  costs through programs like EnerGuide, then
  energy efficiency becomes a strong marketing
  feature.
• Energy efficiency can also lead to reduced fossil
  fuel consumption, thereby lowering emissions of
  greenhouse gases and chemical contributors to
  acid rain.

107
Design strategies for energy-reducing products.

• Use the lowest energy-consuming components
  available.
• Design a default power-down mode and promote this
  function.
• Ensure that users can switch off clocks, stand-by
  functions and other non-required devices.
• Choose light-weight materials and designs if
  energy is required to move the product.
• If energy is used for heating or cooling, 1)
  ensure that appropriate components are well
  insulated, and 2) consider if user-needs can
  still be met without such energy use.
• Consider the possibility for human-powered
  alternative designs.
• Consider possibilities for passive solar heating
  and rechargeable batteries.

108
Lower Energy Consumption - example

• The Baylis FreePlay Wind Up Radio was intended
  initially for people in developing countries
  where affordable energy is scarce or
  non-existent. It was designed for recyclability
  its materials have a low impact on the
  environment and its production minimizes
  manufacturing waste. But the radio has also found
  many other applications for remote-location
  activities such as logging, boating and hiking.
  The radio uses strip steel springs as the primary
  energy storage device to drive a direct current
  generator. The spring maintains its performance
  characteristics over many years with a lifetime
  in excess of 10,000 cycles.

109
6.2 Cleaner Energy Sources

• The use of clean energy sources can greatly
  reduce harmful emissions at the energy-generation
  stage, especially for energy-intensive products.
  This strategy, aimed at increasing the use of
  cleaner energy sources, should be applied in
  conjunction with 6.1 Lower Energy Consumption.
• It may be that your source of energy for product
  manufacture is predetermined by context and
  market. However, if you do have a choice of a
  cleaner energy source such as electricity or
  natural gas, you should consider the following
• Design products to use the least harmful source
  of energy.
• Design high-efficiency alternatives when the
  least harmful source of energy is not available
  in the target market or available at the
  preferred manufacturing location. (6.1 Lower
  Energy Consumption)
• For large industrial products or machinery,
  encourage the use of cleaner energy such as
  low-sulfur energy sources, i.e., natural gas and
  low-sulfur coal, fermentation, wind energy,
  hydro-electric power, solar energy and on-site
  co-generation from waste heat or steam.

110
6.3 Reduce Use of Consumables

• This strategy focuses on applications of design
  that will lead to lower, or more efficient, use
  of consumables such as water, oil, filters,
  cleaners/detergents and food/organic materials
  during a product's life span.
• Reducing the need for, and use of, consumables
  can increase maintenance intervals for the
  product, reduce operating costs, and improve user
  satisfaction. This strategy should be applied
  along with 2 Physical Optimization.

111
Design for less.

• Design the product to minimize the use of
  auxiliary materials, e.g., use a permanent filter
  in coffee makers instead of paper filters, and
  use the correct shape of filter to ensure optimal
  use of coffee.
• Minimize possible leaks from machines that use
  high volumes of consumables by, for example,
  installing a leak detector.
• Study the feasibility of re-using consumables,
  e.g., newer dishwashers re-circulate some wash
  water to reduce total water usage.

112
6.4 Cleaner Consumables and Auxiliary Products

• If a consumable/auxiliary product is to become
  "cleaner," it should be regarded as an individual
  product with its own life cycle. DfE strategies
  can then be applied separately for each
  consumable/auxiliary product, particularly in
  regard to
• material (3 Optimize Material Use)
• production (4 Optimize Production)
• use (6.3 Reduce Use of Consumables)
• end-of-life phase (7 Optimize End-of-Life
  Systems)

113
6.4 Cleaner Consumables and Auxiliary Products
(cont.)

• Designers and suppliers should collect
  information on the environmental impact of
  possible consumables/auxiliaries in order to make
  informed decisions. Specifying cleaner use can
  have the following benefits
• Increased product safety.
• Reduced handling of hazardous/dangerous
  materials.
• Reduced disposal costs of hazardous/dangerous
  materials.
• Greater environmental appeal to users, resulting
  in more sales.
• Development of stronger customer relationships.

114
Some factors to consider when applying this
strategy

• Implementing a collection/recycling/re-manufacturi
  ng system to eliminate disposal of filters,
  cartridges and dispensers in landfill or
  incineration facilities.
• Being aware of the possibility of harmful wastes
  being produced as a result of using inferior
  consumables, e.g., low quality oil or coolants in
  engines can affect performance, emissions and
  efficiency.

115
Cleaner Consumables and Auxiliary Products -
example

• Black Decker Canada has an ongoing pilot
  program in Ontario to provide a recycling system
  for its rechargeable appliances and reduce the
  impact of contamination from its NiCd batteries.
  The program gives users a rebate towards their
  next purchase when they bring unwanted appliances
  back to their dealer for re-use. They also
  receive the rebate if they bring their appliance
  back to have batteries replaced. The program
  diverted over 127 tonnes of waste from landfill
  in its first year of operation alone.

116
6.5 Reduce Energy and Other Consumable Waste

• There is often a gap between the manufacturer's
  intended use and maintenance of a product and
  what actually happens when it's in the hands of
  end-users. This gap can result in waste.
• This strategy focuses on designs that foster
  proper product use.
• Related strategies are 2 Physical Optimization
  and 6.1 Lower Energy Consumption.

117
Reduce Energy and Other Consumable Waste - tips

• Design for easy-to-understand use and Provide
  clear instructions.
• Design so that users cannot waste auxiliary
  materials, e.g., funnel-shaped filling inlets,
  and spring return or auto-off power switches.
• Place calibration marks so that users know
  exactly how much auxiliary/consumable material,
  e.g., detergent or lubricant oil, is required.
• Make the default position or state-of-the-product
  the one that is most desirable environmentally,
  e.g., power-down or stand-by modes.
• Contents

118
Strategy 7 Optimize End-of-Life Systems

• Minimize the environmental impact of a product
  once it reaches the end of its useable life span
  through proper waste management and reclamation
  of components and materials.

119
Introduction

• This strategy is aimed at re-using valuable
  product parts/components and ensuring proper
  waste management at the end of a product's useful
  life. Optimized end-of-life systems can reduce
  environmental impacts through reinvestment of the
  original materials and energy used in
  manufacturing.
• Companies should consider various end-of-life
  scenarios. The questions, listed here in order of
  most favourable to least favourable in terms of
  environmental impact, can help you determine how
  to optimize the end of a product's life.
• Can the product/components/parts be reused?
• Can parts/components be remanufactured and then
  re-used?
• Can parts be used for material recycling?
• Can parts be safely incinerated?
• Should parts be disposed of in landfill?

120
Optimize End-of-Life Systems - substrategies

• 7.1 Re-use of Product
• 7.2 Design for Disassembly
• 7.3 Product Re-manufacturing
• 7.4 Material Recycling
• 7.5 Safer Incineration

121
7.1 Re-use of Product

• This strategy focuses on re-use of the whole
  product, either for the same application or a new
  one. The more the product retains its original
  form, the more environmental merit is achieved,
  provided that take-back programs ( 7.3 Product
  Re-manufacturing) and recycling systems (7.4
  Material Recycling) are developed simultaneously.

122
The benefits of this strategy include

• Greater environmental appeal for end-users.
• Increase in sales.
• Cost-savings.

123
The possibilities for re-use are dependent upon
the following

• The product's technical, aesthetic and
  psychological life span.
• A secondary market willing to accept used
  products.
• A repair and maintenance infrastructure.

124
When applying this strategy, products should be
designed

• With appropriate technical and aesthetic life
  spans in mind.
• To be pleasing/useful for successive users in
  order to maximize life spans.
• To use quality components and reliable technology
  that will not become prematurely obsolete and
  will, therefore, contribute to maintaining value.
  
• To contribute to ease of cleaning, maintenance
  and upgrading.

125
Re-use of Product - example

• Milliken, a North American carpet tile
  manufacturer, has a program which rejuvenates or
  "re-cond