Gender

1
Chapter 20
This chapter introduces students to the study of
Gender. It discusses gender stratification, the
relationships between gender and sexuality, and
the role of gender in industrialized societies.

• Gender

2
Introduction

• Sex
• refers to biological differences,
• Gender
• refers to the cultural construction of male and
  female characteristics.
• Sexual dimorphism
• refers to marked differences in male and female
  biology besides the primary and secondary sexual
  features

3
Definitions

• Gender roles
• tasks and activities that a culture assigns to
  the sexes.
• Gender stereotypes
• are oversimplified but strongly held ideas of the
  characteristics of men and women.
• Gender stratification
• describes an unequal distribution of rewards
  between men and women, reflecting their different
  positions in social hierarchy.

4
Recurrent Gender Patterns

• Cross-culturally the subsistence contributions of
  men and women are roughly equal.
• Domestic activities vs. extradomestic activities
• Primary caregivers?

5
Economic Roles and Gender Stratification

• What leads to decreased gender stratification?
• What correlates with an increase in gender
  stratification?

6
The Public-Domestic Dichotomy

• Strong differentiation between the home and the
  outside world is called the domestic-public
  dichotomy, or the private-public contrast.
• The activities of the domestic sphere tend to be
  performed by women.
• The activities of the public sphere tend to be
  restricted to men.
• Public activities tend to have greater prestige
  than domestic ones, which promotes gender
  stratification.

7
Sex-Linked Activities

• All cultures have a division of labor based on
  gender,
• but the particular tasks assigned to men and
  women vary from culture to culture.
• Almost universally, the greater size, strength,
  and mobility of men have led to their exclusive
  service in the roles of hunters and warriors.

8
Sex-Linked Activities

• Lactation and pregnancy also tend to preclude the
  possibility of women being the primary hunters in
  foraging societies.
• However, these distinctions are very general, and
  there is always overlap

9
Natural Form of Human Society

• Before 10,000 years ago, all human groups were
  foragers.
• Relative gender equality is most likely the
  ancestral pattern of human society.

10
Gender among Horticulturalists

• Women were found to be the main producers in
  horticultural societies.
• In half of the societies, women did most of the
  cultivating.
• In a third of the societies, men and women made
  equal contributions to cultivation.
• In only 17 of the societies did men do most of
  the work.
• Women dominated horticulture in 64 of the
  matrilineal societies and in 50 of the
  patrilineal societies.

11
Reduced Gender StratificationMatrilineal,
Matrilocal Societies

• Female status tends to be relatively high in
  matrilineal, matrilocal societies (e.g.,
  Minangkabau).
• Reasons for high female status were
• women had economic power due to inheritance
• the residence pattern lent itself to female
  solidarity.

12
Reduced Gender StratificationMatrilineal,
Matrilocal Societies

• A matriarchy is a society ruled by women.
• Anthropologists have never discovered a
  matriarchy, but the Iroquois show that women's
  political and ritual influence can rival that of
  men.
• Warfare was external only, as is typical of
  matrilineal societies.
• Women controlled local economy men hunted and
  fished.
• Matrons determined entry in longhouses and also
  had power of impeachment over chiefs.

13
Reduced Gender StratificationMatrifocal Societies

• A survey of matrifocal (mother-centered, often
  with no resident husband-father) societies
  indicates that male travel combined with a
  prominent female economic role reduced gender
  stratification.
• The example of the Igbo (Nigeria) demonstrated
  that gender roles might be filled by members of
  either sex.

14
Increased Gender StratificationPatrilineal-Patril
ocal Societies

• The spread of patrilineal-patrilocal societies
  has been associated with pressure on resources
  and increased local warfare.
• As resources become scarcer, warfare often
  increases.
• The patrilineal-patrilocal complex concentrates
  related males in villages, which solidifies their
  alliances for warfare.

15
Increased Gender StratificationPatrilineal-Patril
ocal Societies

• The patrilineal-patrilocal combination tends to
  enhance male prestige opportunities and result in
  relatively high gender stratification (e.g.,
  highland Papua-New Guinea).
• Women do most of the cultivation, cooking, and
  raising children, but are isolated from the
  public domain.
• Males dominate the public domain (politics,
  feasts, warfare).

16
Homosexual Behavior among the Etoro

• Etoro culture is used as an example of extreme
  male-female sexual antagonism and the degree to
  which gender is culturally constructed.
• Etoro men believe that semen is necessary to give
  life force to a fetus.
• Men have a limited supply of semen.
• Sexuality depletes this supply and saps male
  vitality.
• Heterosexual intercourse is seen as necessary to
  reproduce, but unpleasant because it will lead to
  a man's eventual death.
• Heterosexual sex is discouraged and limited to
  only about 100 days a year.
• Heterosexual sex is banned from community life
  and must take place in the woods far from the
  village.

17
Homosexual Behavior among the Etoro (cont.)

• Although heterosexual sex is discouraged,
  homosexual sex between males is viewed as
  essential.
• In order for boys to grow into men, they must
  orally receive semen from older men.
• Homosexual acts can take place in the village.
• Etoro homosexuality is governed by a code of
  conduct.
• Homosexual sex between older men and younger boys
  is seen as essential.
• Homosexual sex between boys of the same age is
  discouraged.

18
Sexual Orientation

• All human activities, including sexual
  preferences, are to some extent learned and
  malleable.
• Sexual orientation refers to a persons habitual
  sexual attractions and activities.
• Heterosexuality refers to the sexual preference
  for members of the opposite sex.
• Homosexuality refers to the sexual preference for
  members of the same sex.
• Bisexuality refers to the sexual preference for
  members of both sexes.
• Asexuality refers to indifference toward or lack
  of attraction to either sex.

19
Sexual Norms

• Sexual norms vary considerably cross-culturally
  and through time.
• There tends to be greater cross-cultural
  acceptance of homosexuality than of bestiality
  and masturbation.
• Flexibility in human sexual expression is part of
  our primate heritage.
• Masturbation exists among chimpanzee and other
  primates.
• Homosexual behavior exists among chimpanzee and
  other primates.
• Sexuality is a matter that culture and
  environment determine and limit.

20
Gender among Agriculturalists

• With agriculture, women become cut off from
  production.
• This shift is due in part to the increase of
  heavier labor that characterizes agriculture and
  the increase in the number of children to raise.

21
Gender among Agriculturalists (cont.)

• Social changes that accompany agriculture also
  functioned to reduce the status of women.
• Belief systems started to contrast men's valuable
  extradomestic labor with women's domestic role,
  now viewed as inferior.
• The decline of polygyny and the rise of the
  importance of the nuclear family isolated women
  from their kin and co-wives.
• Female sexuality is carefully supervised in
  agricultural societies, which results in men
  having greater access to divorce and extramarital
  sex.

22
Patriarchy and Violence

• Patriarchal Societies
• The male role in warfare is highly valued.
• Violent acts against women are common and include
  dowry murders, female infanticide,
  clitoridectomies.
• Domestic Violence
• Family violence is a worldwide problem.
• Abuse of women is more common in societies where
  women are separated from their supportive kin
  ties (e.g., patrilineal, patrifocal, and
  patrilocal societies).

23
Early American Industrialism

• The public-domestic dichotomy as it is manifested
  in America (a womans place...) is a relatively
  recent development.
• Initially, women and children worked in
  factories, but were supplanted by immigrant men
  who were willing to work for low wages.
• Since World War II, the number of women in the
  work force has increased dramatically

24
The Feminization of Poverty

• The number of single-parent, female headed
  households has doubled since 1959, with the
  largest proportion of these being minorities.
• The combination of dual responsibilities
  (parenting and work) and poorer employment
  opportunities means that these households are
  increasingly poverty stricken.