The Changing Climate of Assessment: Addressing the Changing Demands of Assessment Policy

1
The Changing Climate of AssessmentAddressing
the Changing Demands of Assessment Policy

• 21st February 2009Australian Literacy Educators
  Association
• Val Klenowski
• Queensland University of Technology
• val.klenowski_at_qut.edu.au

2
Changing Climate

• Impact of Assessment for Learning
• International Comparative Analysis Data
• Standards-driven reform
• National Curriculum and Assessment
• Building communities of assessment learners

3
Literacy in the Context of Assessment

• There has been a shift from a traditional view
  of literacy as skills, knowledges and cognitions
  that reside within the individual to a
  conceptualization of literacy as visible social
  practices with language, text and discourse.
  (Gee, 2003 cited by Hipwell, 2009)
• A sociocultural view underpins this perspective
  adopted in this presentation

4
Literacy Demands in the Context of Assessment

• Assessment is the purposeful, systematic and
  ongoing collection of information as evidence for
  use in making judgments about student learning.
• Through multiple formal and informal assessment
  opportunities observation, consultation, focused
  analysis, peer and self-assessment can monitor
  the learners progress.

5
Assessment Purposes

• Promote, assist and improve students learning
• Inform teaching and learning
• Provide data that can be communicated to a range
  of people about the progress and achievements of
  individual students or groups of students.

6
Formative and Summative Purposes

• Assessment of learning equates to summative
  assessment. Process of summing up or checking
  what has been learned at the end of a particular
  stage of learning.
• Assessment for learning equates to formative
  assessment. Assessment that helps students learn.
• (Weeden, Winter and Broadfoot, 2002)

7
Changing Emphases Torrance 1997
8
Assessment of and for Learning

• Assessment of Learning (AoL) adds procedures or
  tests to existing work and involves only marking
  and feedback of grades or marks to students
• Assessment for Learning (AfL) is the process of
  seeking and interpreting evidence for use by
  learners and their teachers to decide where the
  learners are in their learning, where they need
  to go and how best to get there.

9
Assessment for Learning

• Is embedded in a view of teaching and learning of
  which it is an essential part
• Involves sharing learning goals with students
• Aims to help students know and recognise the
  standards for which they are aiming
• Involves students in self-assessment

10
Assessment for Learning

• Provides feedback that leads to students
  recognition of their next steps and how to take
  them
• Is underpinned by confidence that every student
  can improve
• Involves both teacher and students in reviewing
  and reflecting on assessment data
• The Assessment Reform Group http//k1.ioe.ac.uk/tl
  rp/arg/publications.html

11
The Assessment Learning Relationship

• Assessment is not a separate linear function
• Teacher student relationship has a central
  mediating role - as does the complex
  interrelationship between teacher and student
  beliefs about learning, the structure of the
  tasks and the social and cultural interactions
  and contexts of the classroom, school and policy
  environment . (Willis, 2007 2)

12
The teacher student relationship in the context
of AfL

• Sociocultural view of learning is participatory
  as opposed to an acquisition view of learning
• Students appropriated participatory practices
  into their traditional cultural narratives of
  learning, forming entangled (Elwood, 2008)
  learner identities. (Willis, 2009)
• AfL practices seen as both social and cognitive
  practices that help students learn the norms of a
  community where the teacher leads the students to
  both belong and become skilled learners in a
  collaborative community. (Willis, 2009)

13
Research Evidence

• Wiliam (2007 36) research reviews of formative
  assessment reveal that formative assessment
  raises standards
• can effectively double the speed of student
  learning
• Black and Wiliams study (1998) showed that
  practices were under-developed.

14
Effective Formative Assessment Wiliam (2007)

• Activate students as the owners of their own
  learning (eg have students assess their own work
  using agreed-on criteria for success)
• Encourage students to be instructional resources
  for one another (eg peer assessment and feedback)

15
Effective Formative Assessment Wiliam (2007)

• Clarify and share learning intentions and
  criteria for success with students (eg share work
  samples completed by previous students)
• Engineer effective classroom discussions,
  questions, and learning tasks (eg use effective
  questioning techniques)
• Provide feedback that moves learners forward (eg
  link comments to criteria and standards)

16
Changing Climate of Assessment

• Global shift towards standards-driven assessment
  (A-E reporting)
• Accountability context where standards are used
  as a lever to improve reliability and consistency
  of teacher judgment
• High-stakes assessment e.g. International Tests,
  National Curriculum and Assessment, NAPLAN Tests

17
Changing Demands of Assessment Policy
International

• Politicians and policy makers are increasingly
  interested in international assessment surveys of
  educational attainment
• Programme for International Student Assessment
  (PISA)
• Trends in Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS)

18
International Comparative Data

• Since we began the program for the assessment of
  15 year olds, countries are paying a great deal
  of attention. And with the release of the third
  set of data, last year, we can see that while
  Australias maths levels are holding at the same
  level, weve slipped relatively because other
  countries have moved ahead. So its not a stable
  competition out there. Every country is seeking
  to do better and to learn from those that are
  doing better than themselves already.
  (Australian Labor Party, 2008)

19
International Comparative Analyses

• International comparative surveys have influenced
  policy development
• Need for caution, however, in the use of the
  results from such comparative studies
• Politicians keen to introduce particular policies
  based on these results may overlook identified
  limitations of such studies

20
International Comparative Analyses Invalid Uses

• Potential for unintended and harmful consequences
• Inadequacy of some high-stakes assessments
• Lack of sufficient reliability or validity for
  their intended purposes
• Policy officers can be misled by spurious
  increases in assessment results i.e. do not
  relate to improved learning

21
International Comparative Analyses Invalid Uses

• Students might be placed at increased risk of
  failure or disengagement from schooling
• Teachers may be blamed for inequitable resources
  which remain beyond their control
• Curriculum and teaching can become distorted if
  high grades per se, rather than learning become
  the overriding goal

22
International Comparative AnalysesPISA and TIMSS

• International measures of educational attainment
  are used by policy developers
• UK post 1996 TIMSS results - National Numeracy
  Project to address perceived weaknesses in the
  teaching of Maths,
• the National Numeracy Strategy,
• the National Literacy Strategy and
• KS 3 strategy

23
International Example England 1988 National
Curriculum (NC)

• Schools preoccupied with achievement in terms of
  student results
• Evaluation and assessment took on an
  accountability function
• NC identified content of programs, objectives and
  processes in terms of standards and targets
• Publication of league tables device for making
  judgments about school performance

24
Accountability Cautions

• In the name of efficiency there is a return to
  technological and behaviouristic refinements of
  curriculum evaluation and a possible
  trivialization that threatens the intellectual
  activity for those involved in the discipline of
  curriculum evaluation.
• Data analyzed for a particular purpose may be
  used for another unintended purpose.

25
Standards and Assessment

• The term standards is ubiquitous but there are
  no simple measuring instruments that can be used
  to determine an appropriate value for a students
  achievement or for that matter a school.
• There is no natural unit of measurement as there
  is for physical qualities such as weight or
  height.
• Assessment in education is inherently inexact and
  should be treated as such (Harlen, 1994)

26
Standards and Assessment

• Standards in the context of standards-referenced
  assessment describe the expected features or
  qualities at different levels of performance.
• Standards are used to monitor growth in student
  learning and provide information about the
  quality of student achievement.

27
Unintended consequences of high-stakes
assessments

• Policy makers set high standards of achievement
  to inspire greater effort on the part of
  students, teachers and principals
• Govt in England set target of 85 of pupils to
  reach Level 4 in Maths and Eng by Year 6 (a goal
  that is yet to be met)

28
Standards and Assessment

• Pressure is on teachers and schools as they are
  judged publicly
• Reay and Wiliam (1999) researched a class
  preparing for the national tests (SATs)
• Stobart (2008) has indicated how aware children
  are of their expected level

29
Assessment and Accountability

• HANNAH Im really scared about the SATs. Mrs
  OBrien teacher at the school came in and
  talked to us about our spelling and Im no good
  at spelling and David the class teacher is
  giving us times tables tests every morning and
  Im hopeless at times tables so Im frightened
  Ill do the SATs and be a nothing.
• RESEARCHER I dont understand Hannah. You cant
  be a nothing.
• HANNAH Yes, you can cos you have to get a level
  like 4 or level 5 and if youre no good at
  spellings and times tables you wont get those
  levels and so youre a nothing.
• RESEARCHER Im sure thats not right.
• HANNAH Yes it is cos thats what Mrs OBrien
  was saying.
• (Reay and Wiliam, 1999 cited by Stobart,
  20082)

30
Assessment and Accountability

• May 2008 Headlines in England
• Tests damaging to school system
• Teachers criticise over-testing
• The original purposes of examinations, to assess
  students progress has become confused with
  school accountability and the performance
  management of teachers (BBC, 20082)

31
Changing Climate of Assessment England

• Testing regime in England has been researched and
  analysed with the identification that on average
  each student in that education system will take
  over 100 formal tests or examinations
• (Mortimore, 2008)
• October 2008 government in England abolished
  national tests for 14 year olds

t
32
Changing Climate of Assessment England

• the governments decision to listen to advice
  about the impact on schools and the need for
  change was welcomed (Chair of the Office of the
  Qualifications and Examinations (Ofqual)
  Regulator)
• New assessments would be subject to validation by
  Ofqual to ensure that they command confidence,
  and standards are secure.

33
Changing Climate of Assessment Singapore
Ministry of Education

• At lower primary (Primary 1 and 2), focus
  should be on building pupils confidence and
  desire to learn. In these early years, too much
  emphasis on formal semestral examinations may not
  be the optimal way to achieve these outcomes
  better to use assessment to support and improve
  learning.
• Committee recommends that MOE consider using
  bite-sized modes of assessment, such as topical
  tests, to provide regular feedback on pupils
  learning to parents.
• MOE should also train teachers to use a range of
  appropriate assessment techniques and tools to
  provide parents and pupils with better feedback
  on their progress.
• http//www.moe.gov.sg/media/press/2009/01/strong-f
  undamentals-for-future.php

34
Intelligent Accountability

• Teachers, students and education authorities
  involved in accountability processes and develop
  a strong sense of professional responsibility and
  initiative (Sahlberg, 2006)
• Finnish education system recognised
  internationally as a successful system that has
  built on the values of quality equity and social
  cohesion through public funding.
• Finland a slow implementer of market-oriented
  approaches to reform

35
Intelligent Accountability

• In Finland all basic school teachers must hold a
  Masters degree to become permanently employed
  (Sahlberg, 2006 153) and teaching is considered
  a research-based profession that has been central
  to teacher education developments
• Increased numbers of school principals and
  teachers who have completed doctoral degrees
  (ibid)

36
Intelligent Accountability

• Finland was top of the OECD countries in the 2003
  PISA tests results in reading, mathematics and
  scientific literacy.
• Strong performance was uniformly distributed
  across Finnish schools and very little
  between-school variance.
• High in quality and high in equity.

37
Teacher Assessment

• Teacher designed assessment tasks need to
  involve
• a variety of contexts,
• range of modes with the assessment,
• range of response formats and styles
• range of indicators particularly to address
  issues of equity.

38
Teacher Assessment

• TA is an important alternative to centrally
  devised tests because the teacher can address
  students needs that emerge from a particular
  context, sociocultural or historical background
• Students work is assessed at the local level and
  forms part of the state system of assessment of
  student performance
• Multiple judges are needed as in Queenslands
  Senior Secondary System

39
Teacher Assessment

• As the importance of teacher assessment has
  increased teachers have developed their
  assessment literacy
• Fundamental issues in assessment design
• fit for purpose
• mode of assessment to impact positively on
  teaching and learning (Gipps, 1994)

40
Queensland Curriculum, Assessment and Reporting
Framework

• Essential Learnings
• Standards
• Bank of assessment tools
• Promote teachers professional learning
• Queensland Comparable Assessment Tasks (QCATs) in
  Years 4, 6 and 9 to measure essential learning in
  English, Maths and Science
• Common reporting framework
• http//www.qsa.qld.edu.au/assessment/qcar.html

41
Queensland Curriculum Assessment and Reporting
(QCAR) Framework

• Aims to
• improve student learning
• increase comparability of assessment and
  reporting across schools
• align curriculum, teaching and reporting
• address teacher concerns re amount to be taught
  Yr 1-10 curriculum
• use standards for the essential learnings to
  judge the quality of student performance at a
  particular level of schooling
• assist school level planning by providing more
  comprehensive and comparable data on school
  performance
• provide reports to parents that make use of a
  common reporting framework to describe student
  achievement using a five point scale (A-E)

42
ARC Linkage Project Investigating
standards-driven reform in assessment in the
middle years of schooling

• Project Aims
• Examine how teachers use stated standards to
  judge quality of student work
• Develop, trial and evaluate models of moderation
  to support consistency of teacher judgment and to
  inform standards-based reporting to students,
  parents/ carers and systems
• Assess the utility of models of moderation for
  their responsiveness to different pedagogical and
  geographical contexts and student diversity and
• Produce a best practice framework for teacher
  judgment in statewide moderation in years 1 - 10
  including exemplars of how standards are met

43
Teacher Judgment

• Centrality and complexity of teacher judgment
  practice needs to be understood
• Teacher judgment involves
• Supplied textual artifacts (standards, criteria,
  samples of student work)
• Tacit knowledge of different types
• Social processes of dialogue and negotiation

44
Teacher Judgment

• Standards play a part in the judgment process but
  are insufficient to account for how teachers
  ascribe value and award a grade to student work
  in moderation
• The issue that emerges is the extent to which the
  identified factors (textual artifacts, tacit
  knowledge, social processes etc.) impact on
  teachers judgment and the implications regarding
  reliability and validity

45
Teacher Assessment

• Teacher-based assessment is viewed as having high
  validity but questionable reliability
• To address reliability teacher assessors need to
• Develop a common understanding of the standards
• Recognise performances that similarly demonstrate
  those standards (Maxwell, 2002)

46
Findings

• Textual referents (annotated work samples, guide
  to making judgments) meticulously specified what
  teachers were to attend to
• locate the evidence in the student work for
  each assessable element. Match the evidence for
  each assessable element to a task specific
  descriptor in the Guide to making judgments.
  Refer to the Annotated student work samples (if
  available) to support your understanding of the
  expected student response for each task specific
  descriptor (Information sheet on reviewing
  process, QSA, 2007)

47
Working towards consistency

• Conditions that facilitate greater dependability
  of teacher judgment include the extent to which
  teachers share interpretation of criteria and
  standards (Harlen, 2005 213)
• Moderation provides the context for teachers to
  share interpretations of assessment tasks and the
  requisite standards and to develop a common
  language for describing and assessing students
  work.

48
Two Approaches to Qualitative Judgments (Sadler,
2008)

• Analytic
• - the assessor makes separate,
  qualitative judgments on each of the preset
  criteria
• - after the criterion by criterion
  judgments are made, they are combined, by rule
  or formula
• - the aggregate is either used as is or
  converted to a grade
• - final mark is thus built up from a series of
  smaller-scale decisions.

49
Two Approaches to Qualitative Judgments

• Holistic
• the assessor progressively builds up a complex
  response to a student work
• this involves attending to particular aspects
  that draw attention to themselves, and allowing
  an appreciation of the quality of the work as a
  whole to emerge
• the assessor then makes a qualitative judgment as
  to its overall quality and maps that judgment to
  the appropriate point on the grading scale
• in addition to assigning the grade the assessor
  may provide a rationale for it (in summary form
  for the whole work or as running comments on
  various features of the work)
• rationale and feedback statements necessarily
  invoke one or more criteria i.e. the global
  judgment is made first references to criteria
  follow from reflection on appraisal

50
Two Approaches to Qualitative Judgments

• Sadler (in press) argues that
• an explicit model produces outputs (grades)
  that appear to have been substantially
  validated through careful attention to all the
  steps. However, the model itself is
  characterized by indeterminacy, that is
  inherently weak. its implementation creates a
  veil of rigour that makes it difficult for
  learners to question either the process or the
  outcome.

51
Two Approaches to Qualitative Judgments

• Sadler (in press) continues
• Students need to develop a conceptualization of
  what constitutes quality as a generalized
  attribute. They also need to be inducted into
  evaluating quality, without necessarily being
  bound by tightly specified criteria. This
  approach would mirror the way multi-criterion
  judgments are typically made by experienced
  teachers.

52
Implications for Practice

• Inducting students into the same types of
  intellectual appraisal processes that experts use
  would substantially reduce need for
  teacher-derived feedback it would encourage
  students to adopt a holistic perspective of each
  work as a whole, and take into account both
  identifiable properties that rarely feature on
  criterion lists, and properties that are
  difficult or impossible to encapsulate in words.
  (Sadler, 2008)

53
Implications for Practice

• Developing evaluative expertise through guided
  practice would also equip learners to become
  self-critical and able to self-monitor their own
  work while it is in production, which ultimately
  is the very point at which it can make a
  difference to the works quality. (Sadler, 2008)

54
National Curriculum

• Australia, like other countries, has made use of
  international comparative data to introduce
  educational reforms
• Federal Governments intention is that a National
  Curriculum in Mathematics, Science, History and
  English will be implemented in primary and
  secondary schools in 2011
• Will be extended to include geography and
  languages other than English in a second phase

55
Impact of NAPLAN Tests

• To give our students a flying start to 2009
  Professor Masters recommended that teachers
  practise last years test with students so that
  they can get used to the new national type of
  test. All State schools are required to hold
  practice tests for students in Years 3, 5, 7 and
  9 by 20 March
• (Bligh, 2009)

56
Australia Benchmark Testing

• 1999 national benchmarks for reading, writing and
  numeracy in Years 3, 5 and 7 represent minimum
  standards of performance
• Most students achieve benchmark at least in
  reading, writing and numeracy
• 2006 results indicate a high proportion of
  Indigenous students are performing below the
  benchmark

57
International Comparative Data

• TIMSS data showed significant State and Territory
  differences in Australia
• Analysis revealed that Indigenous students scored
  significantly lower than non-Indigenous children
  (Lokan, Ford and Greenwood, 1997)
• A trend in underperformance in terms of equity
  has continued over the past 6 years as evident
  from PISA results (2000, 2003, 2006)
• Australia is underperforming in terms of equity
  high in quality but low in equity(McGaw, 2007)

58
International Comparative Data

• Researchers have found that the conditions for
  learning for young Indigenous students as they
  enter school to be out of alignment with their
  needs (Warren De Vries, 2007 Simpson, Munns
  Clancy, 1999 Zevenbergen, 2000)
• This mismatch between home and school language
  has directly impacted on the Indigenous students
  achievement in literacy and numeracy in the long
  term (MCEETYA, 2004)

59
Australia Benchmark Testing 2006 Data
60
Equity Issues

• This is an equity issue that needs to be
  addressed pedagogically and in terms of
  assessment.
• Latest 2006 PISA data show a continued widening
  of the gap in academic achievement between
  Australias Indigenous students and non
  Indigenous students with minimal improvement
  since 2000
• 2006, 1080 Indigenous students of the Australian
  sample of 14 000 students were assessed in
  scientific, mathematical and reading literacy
• Some Indigenous students performed well however
  on average they scored 86 points (equivalent to
  two and a half years of formal schooling) lower
  than non-Indigenous students (ACER, 2007)

61
Sociocultural Perspective

• Equity in assessment is a complex issue and is
  more than a consideration of design of tests or
  tasks
• Equally important is whether all students have
• access to learning,
• how the curriculum and/or standards are defined
  and taught and
• how achievement in the curriculum is interpreted
• Differential performance of Indigenous students
  may be attributable to real differences in
  performance because of Indigenous students
• differing access to learning,
• different social, cultural contexts or
• real differences in their attainment in the topic
  under consideration due to their experiences or
  sociocultural background

62
Curriculum Literacies in the context of Assessment

• Curriculum literacies refers to the specific ways
  of deconstructing, constructing and
  reconstructing knowledge in the curriculum areas.
• These literacies are subject specific knowledge
  and literacies combine at the interface of
  teaching and learning.
• Literacy demands in the curriculum interface with
  a body of knowledge such as a Key Learning Area
  (eg Mathematics) if left implicit and not taught
  explicitly then will be a barrier to learning.
• (Hipwell, 2009)

63
Representations Numeracy Communications Systems

• Written or spoken language
• Technology
• Symbols
• Graphics
• Manipulatives

64
Inclusive of Working Mathematically

• Which student is approximately 80 m from the
  seat?
• Which shaded shape covers the greatest area?
• The length of the sausage string is closest to?
• Which day did the most children visit the Animal
  Park?
• What will be the approximate cost of the wood for
  the art class to make their frames?
• Which of the labels is not correct?

65
Graphical Representations in Testing

• Axis language - vertical or horizontal axes
• Number lines, temperature gauge, number tracks
• Opposed opposite language vertical and
  horizontal axis
• Grids, calendars, graphs
• Retinal list language rotated shapes
• Marks not related to position
• Connection language
• Tree diagrams, networks
• Map language road maps
• Marks dependent on location on map
• Miscellaneous language
• Venn diagrams, circle graphs
• (Diezmann and Lowrie, forthcoming)

66
Analysis of Past 11 Years of National and
International Testing

• Axis language - 11
• Opposed opposite language 67
• Retinal list language 3
• Connection language 4
• Map language 10
• Miscellaneous language 5
• (De Vries, 2009)

67
Axis Languages

• Horizontal and vertical axes A single position
  encodes information by the placement of a mark on
  an axis.

68
Axis Languages

• Horizontal and vertical axes A single position
  encodes information by the placement of a mark on
  an axis.

69
Concluding Comments

• The policy context often results in
• unintended consequences
• unhelpful pressures on the development of
  assessment systems and
• productive assessment approaches do not flourish.
• Assessment sustains teacher engagement in
  judgement practice and curriculum planning
• TA has the potential to address equity issues
  with support from the political centre
• Sustaining confidence in TA remains key

70
Concluding Comment

• Current methods of accountability can damage
  rather than repair trust and what is needed is
  intelligent accountability (ONeill, 2002)
• Trust is hard earned and easily dissipated. It
  is valuable social capital and not to be
  squandered. (ONeill, 2002)

71
References

• Australian Labor Party (2008) National
  Curriculum Board Announcement. Press conference
  Queanbeyan Public School, 31 January, 2008.
  Retrieved November 22, 2008 http//www.alp.org.au/
  media/0108/pcdpmpm310.php
• Australian Council for Educational Research
  (2007, December 4) PISA shows Indigenous students
  continue to struggle, Media Release, Camberwell
  ACER.
• Assessment Reform Group (1999) Assessment for
  Learning Beyond the Black Box, University of
  Cambridge Faculty of Education Cambridge.
• Assessment Reform Group (2002) Testing,
  Motivation and Learning, University of Cambridge
  Faculty of Education Cambridge.
• Assessment Reform Group (2002) Assessment for
  Learning 10 Principles http//www.assessment-reor
  m-group.org.uk

72
References

• Black, P. and Wiliam, D. (1998) Inside the
  Black Box Raising Standards Through Classroom
  Assessment, Kings College London.
• Black, P., Harrison, C., Lee, C., Marshall, B.
  Wiliam, D. (2002) Working Inside the Black Box
  Assessment for Learning in the Classroom, Kings
  College London.
• Black, P., Harrison, C., Lee, C., Marshall, B.
  Wiliam, D. (2003) Assessment for Learning in the
  Classroom Putting it into Practice, Open
  University Press Maidenhead.
• Bligh, A. (2009) Letter to Parent, Queensland
  Government Brisbane, Queensland.

73
References

• British Broadcasting Commission (2008) Tests
  damaging to school system 13 May, 2008,
  London, http//news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/education/73966
  23.stm (accessed 1 June, 2008)
•  
• Diezmann, C. M., Lowrie, T. J., (forthcoming).
  An instrument for assessing primary students
  knowledge of graphics in mathematics. Assessment
  in Education Principles, Policy Practice.
• De Vries, E. (2009) Power Point Presentation for
  Developing Culturally Fair Assessment Project, Mt
  Isa, Queensland.
• Education Queensland (2001) Years 1-10
  Curriculum Framework for Education Qld Schools,
  Department of Education, Queensland, Australia.
• Gipps, C. (1994) Beyond Testing Towards A
  Theory of Educational Assessment, London Falmer
  Press.
•  

74
References

• Harlen, W. (1994) Concepts of quality in student
  assessment, Paper presented at the American
  Educational Research Association conference, New
  Orleans.
• Hipwell, P. (2009) Definitions of Literacies,
  Unpublished Work.
• Maxwell, G. S. (2002) Moderation of teacher
  judgments in student assessment, (Discussion
  Paper). Brisbane Queensland School Curriculum
  Council.
• McGaw, B. (2007) Resourced for a world of
  difference, The Australian,
• Wednesday 1 August, p. 25
• Ministerial Council on Education, Employment,
  Training and Youth Affairs MCEETYA.(2004)
  Preliminary paper national benchmark results -
  reading, writing and numeracy - years 3, 5 and 7.
  Retrieved October 18, 2008 from MCEETYA web site
  

75
References

• ONeill, N. (2002) A question of trust. BBC
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•  

76
References

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  Pedagogy and Learning Conference, University of
  Southern Queensland.

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References

• Willis, J. (2009) Case Study One Collaborative
  Assessment for Learning, Unpublished Thesis.
• Zevenbergen, R. (2000, October). Language
  implications for numeracy A study of language
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  at ACER conference Brisbane, Queensland.