Information Technology in Organizations: Theory as Metaphor

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Information Technology in Organizations Theory
as Metaphor

• Sundeep Sahay

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The use of a Metaphor This man is like a lion
Lion
Man
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Why do we use Metaphors?

• Metaphor implies a way of thinking and a way of
  seeing
• To help understand one element of experience in
  terms of another
• They tend to provide one sided insights
• By deemphasizing other elements, they tend to
  create distortions

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Metaphors (or Images) of organizations we live
with (Morgan)

• Organization as machines
• Organization as organisms
• Organization as brains
• Organization as cultures
• Organization as political systems
• Organizations as psychic prisons
• Organization as flux (networks)

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Organization as Machines What is Emphasized?

• Set of mechanical relations (bureaucracy)
• Routinization of activities
• Division of labour
• Standardization of tasks
• Creation of command language
• Focus on optimizing performance
• Centralization of authority

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Assumptions of Rationality

• The Economic Man the manager makes portfolio
  decisions consistent with account objectives for
  individual securities, the beta or volatility of
  the security returns, expected returns. The
  main information task is located in the analyst
  function, responsible both for the estimates of
  the relevant individual individual security data,
  and estimates of overall market performance.

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Rational Navigation

• The European Navigator
• The European Navigator begins with a plan - a
  course which he has charted according to a
  certain universal principles, and he carries out
  his voyage by relating his every move to that
  action. His effort throughout his voyage is
  directed to remaining on-course. If unexpected
  events occur, he must first alter his plan, then
  respond accordingly.

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Assumptions Made

• Characterize situation in terms of identifiable
  objects with well defined properties
• Find general rules that apply to situation in
  terms of objects and properties
• Apply rules logically to the situation
• Draw inferences on what should be done
• Organization fundamentally about rules for
  gathering, storing, communicating and using
  information
• Humans as Information engineers design of
  optimal systems

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What does this metaphor distort?

• How to deal with changing circumstances?
• Encourages unquestioning attitudes
• Spcialization inhibits inter-departmental
  communication
• Limits potential of human development
• Limits cooperation as the emphasis is on
  control...etc

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Organization as Cultures

• Derives from the idea of cultivation
• Refers to patterns of knowledge, ideology,
  values, laws, everyday rituals etc
• How are decisions made, what are the relationship
  of people with information
• Japan organizations seen to combine the spirit
  of the samurai with solidarity of rice growing

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Situated Navigation

• The Trukese Navigator
• The Trukese navigator begins with an objective
  rather than a plan. He sets off towards an
  objective and responds to conditions as they
  respond in ad-hoc fashion. He utilizes
  information provided by the wind, the waves, the
  tide, the current, the fauna, the stars, the
  clouds, the sound of the water, and he steers
  accordingly. His effort is directed to doing
  whatever is necessary to reach the objective. If
  asked, he can point to his objective at any
  point, but he cannot describe his course.

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Assumptions Made

• Cultures favor different ways of acting
• Europeans - abstract, analytical thinking
• Trukese - wisdom, memory experience
• Plans are always situated in particular, concrete
  circumstances
• Emphasis is on understanding encounters of humans
  and organizations with information in particular
  situations

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What is Emphasized?

• Directs attention to the symbolic aspect of
  organizational life information as symbol and
  signal (Feldman)
• Organizations exist as shared systems of meanings
• People can take more responsibility of their role
  in creating shared meanings
• Emphasizes relation between organizations
  environment as socially constructed
• Emphasizes problems of organizational change

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What is distorted?

• Used instrumentally by managers (and consultants)
  as values engineering
• Ideological manipulation and control
• Culture should allow rather than suppress
  expression
• Culural values are dynamic
• Cannot be reduced to a set of measureable
  variables
• Material properties of technology often
  deemhasized

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Organizations as Garbage Cans

• Organizations as organized anarchies
• Problems looking for solutions
• Processes poorly (or not) understood by
  organizational members
• How and by whom is garbage removed?
• Problems and solutions to be seen as social
  products

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Organizations as models of power and politics

• Power ability to produce desired outcomes
• Power arises from a diversity of interests
• Organizations as coalition of loose interests,
  both formal and informal
• Role of gatekeepers
• Information control as a power resource
• New technologies, information, reconfigures power
  relations
• Emphasizes the role of conflict in organizations

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Organizations as models of social influence

• Organizations deal with resource allocation
  situations
• Rational approaches emphasize universalistic
  criteria
• Under uncertainty, particularistic approaches are
  adopted
• Role of social influence
• Embedded in existing social relationships

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References

• Martha S Feldman and James G. March Information
  in organizations as signal and symbol
  Administrative Science Quarterly, 1981, 26,
  171-185.
• Gareth Morgan (1997). Images of Organizations,
  London Sage.