Argument: Reading, Writing, and Research

1
Argument Reading, Writing, and Research

• Alisa Cooper
• ENG 102

2
Introduction

• This lecture will talk about arguments.
• Be sure to read Chapter 14 (pp. 396-437) in your
  textbook, Reading, Writing Research, 5th Ed.
  Veit, Gould, Clifford,

3
Topics of Discussion

• Emotional Appeal
• Logical Argument
• Balanced, Credible Argument
• Informal Analysis of Arguments
• Writing an Argumentative Research Essay

4
Arguments

• You dont have to be hostile, arrogant, an expert
  or sound overly confident to be effective at
  argument.
• You are expected to be reasonable, fair-minded,
  and logical.
• The goal is the honest search for truth in a
  world where there are often competing truths. You
  always want to make your case convincing enough
  to have an impact on your audience but you win
  in argumentative writing when you are fair,
  thorough, and clear.
• The challenge of writing an argument is to place
  ideas in a public forum to see if they stand up
  under scrutiny.

5
Emotional Appeal

• A good example of emotional appeal are
  advertisements.
• They succeed because their creators know that
  they will be viewed casually on billboards and in
  magazines and rarely analyzed in college classes.
  
• By studying advertising methods, we become aware
  of how ads and other forms of emotional appeal
  motivate people to do and believe what their
  creators want them to.
• Many ads emphasize the emotional appeal of a
  product while providing little if any information
  about ingredients, specifications, or the like.

6
Logical Argument

• In contrast to emotional appeal, most serious
  argument relies on factual data and logic.
• To say that an argument is based on logical
  reasoning is not to say that the argument is
  necessarily right. Two opponents can argue
  opposite sides of a complex issue, each using
  logical reasoning in support of his or her
  position.
• A reader would have to weigh the arguments of
  both sides in deciding which, on balance, has
  made the more persuasive case.

7
Balanced, Credible Argument

• Most serious argumentative writing uses some of
  both appeal to emotion and reasoned argument.
• It relies on sound reasoning (sometimes called
  logos), but it also recognizes that our minds are
  more than calculating machines, that they respond
  to emotional appeals (pathos) as well.
• Effective arguments rely on appeals of both
  kinds.
• There is a third element of argumentation,
  however ethos or persona.

8
Persona or Ethos

• Writers use ethical appeals to persuade the
  reader by projecting an image of credibility and
  trustworthiness. This credibility must be earned.
• It is very difficult to convince someone whom you
  have alienated through shoddy research,
  arrogance, and bad writing.
• As Aristotle pointed out long ago, the persona or
  personality that the writer projects matters at
  least as much as the substance and validity of
  the argument.
• You can inspire trust only by being a careful
  thinker and writer.

9
The Reality?

• But even if you are reasonable and well prepared,
  your arguments still may not change the minds of
  those who have strong psychological, social,
  political, or religious reasons for believing the
  way they do.
• There is little hope of changing the minds of
  those with an emotional commitment to a different
  outlook. (smoking, religion, politics)
• But among open-minded, reasonable people
  searching for the truth, there are innumerable
  ideas open to debate.

10
Writing Balanced Arguments

• The focus of this chapter is somewhere between
  the extremes of logic and emotion, on the kind of
  persuasive essays you will read and write in your
  college courses.
• In college reading you will analyze the
  strategies and tactics of arguments, and in your
  writing you will take positions on topics that
  are open to debate.
• You will be required to support you ideas by
  assembling evidence based on your own logic and
  experience and on the logic and experience of
  others.
• In doing so, you will need to deal with those who
  disagree with you by noting the strengths and
  weaknesses of their positions.
• And throughout, you will want to sound like a
  person whom readers can believe and trust.

11
Informal Analysis of Argument

• Intelligent readers try to be on the lookout for
  false promises and manipulative language in
  advertisements.
• But it is not always easy to see through
  questionable arguments that appear to be logical.
• Unless you want to be the victim of half-baked
  ideas and sloppy thinking, you must develop your
  skills as a reader of arguments.
• Most arguments can be considered in terms of five
  elements Purpose, Thesis, Evidence, Refutation,
  Persona.
• By asking questions about these, you can get to
  the heart of an argument.

12
Purpose

• What audience does the writer have in mind that
  is, whom is the writer trying to persuade?
• What is the authors reason for wanting to
  persuade those people?
• What might their position be on this issue?

13
Thesis

• Sometimes called assertion or proposition
• What is the main idea that the writer is trying
  to persuade the reader to accept or act on?
• Is the writers position direct and clear?
• Is the thesis presented as the only reasonable
  position?

14
Evidence

• What kinds of information does the writer cite to
  support the thesis?
• What specific arguments does the author present?
• Is the evidence sound that is, is it
  authoritative, believable, and sufficient?
• Does it rely on logic or emotion?
• How is the evidence arrange?
• Does it convince you?

15
Refutation

• Are the positions of opposing sides presented
  fairly?
• Would the opposing sides agree with the writers
  understanding of their position?
• Does the writer show the opposing arguments to be
  invalid?
• Are there opposing arguments that the writer has
  overlooked?

16
Persona

• What is the writers attitude?
• Is it hostile, cheerful, irate, reasonable,
  sarcastic?
• Does the writer sound believable?
• Is the writer obviously biased or arguing from a
  narrow perspective?
• Does the language used add to the credibility of
  the author, or is it too offensive or aggressive?
• Do you trust this person t be fair and
  open-minded?

17
Writing an Argumentative Research Essay

• Arguments take so many forms- Writers can find so
  many different ways to persuade their readers-
  that it would be impossible to give you an easy
  formula for argumentative writing.
• We can give suggestions, however, and some
  general advice that you can follow to write
  effective arguments.
• You need to pay attention to the principal
  elements that make up an argument.
• The following are important ideas that should be
  considered whenever you write an argument
  Purpose, Thesis, Audience, Persona, Evidence,
  Opposition, Organization.

18
Purpose

• The best advice of all is to have a real reason
  for wanting to persuade others and to keep that
  goal in mind as you write.
• Argue about a topic you care about and believe
  in.
• Argue because you feel it is important for others
  to learn the truth.
• Without the commitment, argument becomes an empty
  exercise, offering little prospect for success or
  satisfaction from it.
• Although commitment is important, it is also
  important to retain an open mind and to be
  willing to be persuaded yourself when better
  ideas and new information are presented to you.

19
Thesis

• As a college writer you should make your thesis
  clear to your readers. State your point in a
  sentence or two, early in your paper.
• It should be controversial.
• It should be arguable.
• It should be clearly defined.

20
Audience

• Write your argument with your audience in mind.
• The tone of your writing, the language you use,
  and the sophistication of your evidence must all
  be adjusted to the interests, values, and
  education of your readers.
• If you are writing to readers who disagree with
  you, try to understand their point of view, to
  view reality from their perspective.
• Not only will this allow you to examine the issue
  more fully and clearly, but it will help you
  present your argument in a way that will be most
  effective with this audience.

21
Persona

• As a writer of arguments, you must be acutely
  aware of how you sound to your audience.
• When you write, you want to project a certain
  image, one that is appropriate to the situation
  at hand.
• Being your true self means being flexible and
  honest.
• In order to establish a believable persona, it is
  important to maintain a reasonable tone.
• You should resist the temptation to belittle the
  opposition or to engage in name calling.

22
Evidence

• It is important to win your readers trust
  through the authority of your evidence.
• Research can help.
• Not only can sources supply you with support for
  your thesis, but they can also lend their expert
  authority to your writing and convince your
  readers that you have studied the subject
  carefully enough to be trusted.

23
Opposition

• Remember that any point worth arguing about will
  have an opposing point of view.
• You must admit that in your essay.
• It increases your credibility when you admit that
  those who differ with you are reasonable people.
• You should also realize that your readers will
  think of the counterarguments to your position,
  and it is good strategy to anticipate their
  objections and to refute them.

24
Organization

• Introduction provide background information so
  that your readers are informed about the
  controversy then state your thesis.
• Evidence Offer support for you thesis.
• Opposition Acknowledge and refute opposing
  points of view.
• Conclusion Draw conclusions from the evidence so
  as to restate the point of your thesis.