Bottled water the trendy accessory

1
Bottled water the trendy accessory?

• David Kay and Lorna Fewtrell
• CREH University of Wales, Aberystwyth
• dvk_at_aber.ac.uk

2
The Context

• 1,000 times more expensive than tap water
• UK consumers spend 1B pa
• Up from 360m in 1998
• Global sales 35B (Evans et al., 2003)
• UK consumers drink 70 litres pa each
• Up from 7 litres in 1991
• Fastest growing UK drinks market sector-

3
What is bottled water?

• A closed container of any kind in which water is
  sold for human consumption or from which water
  sold for human consumption is derived.
• Three main types
• Natural Mineral Water
• Spring Water
• Table Water (including bottled tap water)

4
Natural Mineral Water

• Registered with FSA
• Protected groundwater source
• No treatment to change the chemical and
  microbiological composition
• Labelling
• Source
• Analytical details

5
Spring Water

• Single protected groundwater source, regulated by
  the LA and may be treated and must comply with
  drinking water regulations.

6
Table Water

• Any other bottled water
• Multiple source
• Bottled mains water
• Treated
• Minerals can be added to replace treatment losses

7
Regulations

• Natural Mineral Water, Spring Water and Bottled
  Drinking Water Regulations 2004 (SI 656)
• Implements Directive 2003/40
• SI 656 updates the1999 SI 1540 and, prior to
  that, the Natural Mineral Water Regulations 1985
  and Drinking Water in Containers Regulation 1994
• These implement Directive 80/777/EEC and
  80/778/EEC as amended by Directive 96/70/EEC

8
Natural Mineral Water

• Officially recognised single protected
  groundwater source, not treated to alter chemical
  and microbiological state.
• after a two year qualifying period and testing by
  the LA and registered with the FSA

9
Natural Mineral Water Label

• Analytical composition
• Place where the spring is exploited
• Location of any de-carbonation plant
• Location of any authorised ozone-enriched air
  oxidation treatment
• i.e. for separation of natural Fe, S, Mn and As
  from water, not for disinfection (MACs dissolved
  ozone 0.050 bromate 0.003 bromoforms 0.001
  mg/l)
• Fluoride concentration and gt1.5 mg/l warning

10
MACs for naturally occurring constituents of
Natural Mineral Water (mg/l)

• Antimony 0.005
• Arsenic (tot) 0.01
• Barium 1.0
• Cadmium 0.003
• Chromium 0.05
• Copper 1.0
• Cyanide 0.07
• Fluoride 5.0

• Lead 0.01
• Manganese 0.50
• Mercury 0.001
• Nickel 0.02
• Nitrate 50
• Nitrite 0.1
• Selenium 0.01

11
Microbial standards

• Total coliforms 0/100ml
• Faecal coliforms 0/100 ml
• Faecal streptococci 0/100 ml
• Sulphite-reducing clostridia lt1/20 ml
• Colony count 22 C 100/1 ml
• Colony count 37 C 20/1 ml

12
Microbial standards

• Colony counts should be measured within 12 hours
  of bottling (4oC /- 1.0oC).
• Any increase in the total viable colony count of
  the water between 12 hours after bottling and the
  time of sale shall not be greater than that
  normally expected

13
Bottles

• Should have closures to prevent contamination or
  adulteration

14
CREH Survey for DWI in 1996
15
Survey of the microbial quality of bottled water

• Examined 1082 bottles of still bottled water
  purchased from a variety of retailers around the
  Midlands and North West
• 708 - 65 Natural Mineral Water
• 374 - 35 Spring Water
• Principally looking for differences in microbial
  quality according to the container type and
  sell-by dates

16
Brands examined

• Natural Mineral Water
• Aqua Pura
• Ashbrook Spring
• Buxton Water
• Caledonian Spring
• Evian
• Glenburn Spring
• Highland Spring
• Malvern
• Vittel
• Volvic

• Other bottled water
• Farm Stores
• National Trust
• Peak
• Pennine
• St Michael
• Strathmore
• Ty Nant

17
Microbiological parameters

• Total colony counts at 22 C
• Total colony counts at 37 C
• Total coliforms
• Escherichia coli
• Faecal streptococci (intestinal enterococci)
• Sulphite-reducing clostridia
• Pseudomonas aeruginosa
• Aeromonads

18
Classes of water/container

• Natural Mineral Water
• Other Bottled Water
• Glass
• Plastic
• Clear
• Coloured

19
Five Questions

• Does brand relate to microbial contamination?
• Dose water type relate to microbial
  contamination?
• Does container material relate to microbial
  contamination?
• Does container colour relate to microbial
  contamination?
• Does shelf-life remaining relate to microbial
  contamination?

20
Comparisons of Total Count DataHealth Warning
on These DataThis relates only to the specific
bottles sampled in the survey
21
Brand
22
Brands using clear plastic

• Aqua Pura
• Buxton
• Evian
• Malvern

23
NMW in clear plastic TC 22oC

• Source DF SS MS F
  p
• TYPE 3 53.12 17.71 13.64
  0.000
• Error 205 266.07 1.30
• Total 208 319.19
• Individual 95
  CIs For Mean
• Based on
  Pooled StDev
• Brand N Mean StDev
  ----------------------------------
• Aqua Pura 50 2.559 0.980
  (---------)
• Buxton 53 1.627 1.503 (--------)
• Evian 55 2.650 0.955
  (--------)
• Malvern 51 2.982 1.024
  (---------)
• 
  ----------------------------------
• Pooled StDev 1.139 1.80
  2.40 3.00
• Mean and 95 CI log10 colony
  count at 22oC

42 ml-1
959 ml-1
24
Brands using coloured plastic

• Ashbrook
• Caledonian
• Glenburgh
• Highland Spring
• Vittel
• Volvic

25
NMW in coloured plastic TC 22oC

• Source DF SS MS F
  p
• TYPE 5 236.399 47.280 126.03
  0.000
• Error 343 128.671 0.375
• Total 348 365.070
• Individual 95
  CIs For Mean
• Based on
  Pooled StDev
• Level N Mean StDev
  ---------------------------------
• Ashbrook 49 3.2336 0.5433 (---)
  
• Caledonian 50 2.7078 0.6813 (---)
• Glenburgh 50 2.8882 0.5225 (---)
• Highland S 75 4.7331 0.6299
  (--)
• Vittel 55 3.1366 0.5703 (---)
• Volvic 70 4.5135 0.6751
  (---)
• 
  ---------------------------------
• Pooled StDev 0.6125 2.80
  3.50 4.20 4.90
• Mean and 95 CI log10 colony count at
  22oC

510 ml-1
54,087 ml-1
26
Containers
27
NMW Clear versus coloured plastic TC 37oC
Source DF SS MS F
p Bottle 1 148.29 148.29 81.36
0.000 Error 556 1013.34 1.82 Total
557 1161.63
Individual 95 CIs For Mean
Based on Pooled StDev Level N
Mean StDev ---------------------------
------- Clear 209 1.130 1.209
(-------)
Coloured 349 2.196 1.427
(-----)
----------------------------------
Pooled StDev 1.350 1.20
1.60 2.00 Mean and
95 CI log10 colony count at 37oC
13 ml-1
157 ml-1
28
NMW Clear versus coloured glass TC 37oC

• Source DF SS MS F
  p
• Bottle 1 8.302 8.302 8.94
  0.003
• Error 148 137.502 0.929
• Total 149 145.804
• Individual 95
  CIs For Mean
• Based on
  Pooled StDev
• Level N Mean StDev
  ---------------------------------
• Clear 100 0.9248 0.9362 (-----------)
  
• Coloured 50 1.4239 1.0174
  (----------------)
• 
  ---------------------------------
• Pooled StDev 0.9639 0.90
  1.20 1.50 1.80
• Mean and 95 CI log10
  colony count at 37oC

8 ml-1
26 ml-1
29
NMW in plastic versus glass containers TC 37oC

• Source DF SS MS F
  p
• Material 1 58.84 58.84 31.77
  0.000
• Error 706 1307.43 1.85
• Total 707 1366.27
• Individual 95
  CIs For Mean
• Based on
  Pooled StDev
• Level N Mean StDev
  ---------------------------------
• Plastic 558 1.797 1.444
  (------)
• Glass 150 1.091 0.989
  (-------------)
• 
  ---------------------------------
• Pooled StDev 1.361 0.90 1.20
  1.50 1.80
• Mean and 95 CI log10
  colony count at 37oC

12 ml-1
62 ml-1
30
NMW in plastic versus glass, clear and coloured
containers TC 37oC

• Source DF SS MS F
  p
• Bottle 3 215.43 71.81 43.93
  0.000
• Error 704 1150.84 1.63
• Total 707 1366.27
• Individual 95
  CIs For Mean
• Based on
  Pooled StDev
• Level N Mean StDev
  ----------------------------------
• Clear P 209 1.130 1.209 (-----)
  
• Col P 349 2.196 1.427
  (----)
• Clear G 100 0.925 0.936 (---------)
• Col G 50 1.424 1.017
  (-------------)
• 
  ----------------------------------
• Pooled StDev 1.279 1.00
  1.50 2.00
• Mean and 95 CI log10
  colony count at 37oC

8 ml-1
157 ml-1
31
Water Type TC 37oC

• NMW Geometric Mean
• (44 ml-1)
• Other Bottled Water Geometric Mean
• (77 ml-1)
• Significant at p0.008

32
Shelf Life remainingv Total Count
37oCNOCLEAR TREND

• Source DF SS MS F
  p
• months 28 558.40 19.94 14.51
  0.000
• Error 1003 1378.30 1.37
• Total 1031 1936.70
• Individual 95
  CIs For Mean
• Based on
  Pooled StDev
• Months N Mean StDev
  ---------------------------------
• 1 9 1.115 1.242
  (--------------)
• 3 4 1.039 0.233
  (---------------------)
• 4 6 0.715 0.687
  (-----------------)
• 5 13 1.044 0.498
  (-----------)
• 6 20 2.216 1.141
  (--------)
• 7 155 2.344 1.274
  (-)
• 8 118 1.434 1.268
  (--)
• 9 75 1.480 1.173
  (---)
• 10 70 1.993 1.222
  (----)
• 11 25 2.403 1.493
  (--------)
• 12 46 2.860 1.316
  (-----)
• 13 35 1.658 1.361
  (-----)

33

• Does brand relate to microbial contamination?
  YES
• Dose water type relate to microbial
  contamination? YES
• Does container material relate to microbial
  contamination? YES
• Does container colour relate to microbial
  contamination? YES
• Does shelf-life remaining relate to microbial
  contamination? NO

34
Total Count Results Summary

• Almost 60 of samples incubated at 22C and over
  20 incubated at 37C yielded colony counts
  greater than 1,000 cfu/ml at the point of sale

35
Other bacterial indicators
36
Overall microbial quality

• No samples were found to contain E. coli, faecal
  streptococci or aeromonads.
• 4 samples contained total coliforms
• 1 sample contained sulphite-reducing clostridia
• 13 samples contained Pseudomonas aeruginosa

37
Overall microbial quality

• These 18 samples represented nine different
  brands.
• 11 were from plastic coloured bottles
• 6 were from plastic clear bottles
• 1 was from a glass bottle
• These figures represent almost 2 of the samples
  failing to meet the microbial standards

38
Some Pros and ConsWeighing the evidence
39
Suggest health problems

• Statistical link between drinking bottled water
  and campylobacter food poisoning (Evans et al.,
  2003)
• Evans et al. (2003) Hazards of healthy living
  bottled water and salad vegetables as risk
  factors for campylobacter infection. Emerging
  Infectious Diseases 9(10), 1219-1225
• Suggested link between kidney stones and drinking
  bottled water (Borghi et al., 1990)
• Borghi et al. (1990) Epidemiological study of
  urinary tract stones in a northern Italian city.
  British Journal of Urology 65(3), 231-235.

40
Other now dated studies of very marginal
relevance

• Cholera risks
• Blake P.A. et al., (1977) Cholera in Portugal,
  1974 II Transmission by bottled water. Am J
  Epidemiol 105, 344-348
• Typhoid risks
• Harris,J.R. (1982) Are bottled beverages safe for
  travellers? American Journal of Public Health 72,
  787-788

41
Summary
42

• In 2003, UK consumers drank more than 2 billion
  litres up 18 on 2002.

43
Convenient hydration Reassuringly expensive?
44

• Choice
• Spring water
• Natural mineral water
• Fizzy water
• Flavoured
• Designer bottles
• Drink on the go bottles
• .

45
Not forgetting the power of marketing!
46
In the end it perhaps a matter of taste..
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(No Transcript)
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Acknowledgements

• Thanks to the Drinking Water Inspectorate for
  funding the empirical data presented