Qualitative

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Qualitative Quantitative Research

• Session Tutor Sarah Richardson
  sarah.richardson_at_warwick.ac.uk

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Overview

• Assessment procedures
• Qualitative research methods
• Source assessment and data-modelling
• The challenge of sources
• How will relational databases help?
• Source analysis
• Database design and creation
• Free text databases
• Methodological issues
• Practical sessions

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Assessment

• Link http//www2.warwick.ac.uk/fac/arts/history/p
  ostgraduate/tsm/quan_research

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Qualitative/Quantitative Divide

• Elliot blurs distinction between the two (but
  hers is a social science definition)
• Quantitative standardised questions generates
  data expressed in numerical form
• Qualitative less structured research yielding
  rich textual or observational data
• She suggests focus on narrative is the way forward

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How does this relate to TSM?

• A more critical framework for the collection of
  data
• Source appreciation and analysis
• Encouragement to engage with a wider theoretical
  context eg on historical change, causality and
  identity
• Awareness of the skills of both qualitative and
  quantitative researchers

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Challenges

• Unstructured source material
• Missing data
• Complications with numbers and dates
• Data comes from more than one source

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Databases should look like this?
Unique identifier or primary key
Column or field or attribute
Row or record
Field name or attribute name
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But what do you do with this?
Letter from the Medici Granducal Archive
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How will relational databases help?

• A relational database is a database created with
  many tables linked together
• Each table has a common factor which links it to
  others in the database
• For complex sources a number of tables may be
  created to deal with different aspects of the data

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Relational model
Offences Table Defendant ID Case Number Offence
Type Place of Offence Date of Offence Description
Comments
Defendant Table Defendant ID First
name Surname Address Age Sex Occupation
Title Comments
Sentence Table Defendant ID Case
Number Verdict Sentence Comments
Witnesses Table Case Number Witness 1 First
name Witness 1 Surname Witness 1 Address Witness
1 Sex Witness 2 First name Witness 2
Surname Witness 2 Address Witness 2 Sex Comments
Occupational Categorisation Table Occupation
Title Occupational Categorisation 1 Occupational
Categorisation 2
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A more complex relational database
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Source analysis

• Data should be broken down into components that
  collects groups of information into objects or
  events.
• For example information relating to a person, an
  organisation, a document, an object or a
  building, or to events such as a marriage, a
  transaction, the making of a will, or an
  election.
• In database terminology these are referred to as
  entities.
• Each entity will form a table in the final
  database.

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Attributes

• Once each entity has been identified, list the
  data associated with each.
• For example, the Defendant table has information
  on the first name, surname, address, age, sex and
  occupation of each defendant.
• This information will produce the fields for each
  table.
• The fields are also known as attributes.

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Field types
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Issues for field types

• Size
• Calculations
• Dates
• Currency
• Unstructured data
• Unique identifiers

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Relationships

• One-to-one relationships records in one table
  have only one match with records in a second
  table.
• One-to-many relationships records in the first
  table match many in the second, but those in the
  second table only have one match.
• Many-to-many relationships records from both
  tables have relationships between them

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Data entry tips

• Fields may be designated as required.
• Default values may be entered.
• Use the tool to allow one of only two options to
  be entered such as Yes/No, True/False, Guilty/Not
  Guilty.
• Look-up tables a fixed list of values that may
  be entered into a particular field.
• Validation rules.
• Automatic generation of unique numbers.

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Free Text Databases

• Free text databases search unstructured texts and
  images provided in digital form
• They work by tagging the text in a mark-up
  language (eg HTML, XML, SGML). In the past users
  had to do this. Now most programmes will do it
  for you.
• The database may then be searched in a number of
  ways full-text wildcard searches with and ?
  Boolean searches (AND, OR, and NOT) proximity
  searches numeric searches (gt, lt, gt, lt, ltgt)
  Date searches Fuzzy searches

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Examples of free text databases
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Methodological Issues

• Nominal record linkage
• Coding
• Occupational analysis
• Prosopography
• Community reconstruction

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Nominal Record Linkage

• Concerns all historians using data containing
  names
• How do we determine that sources relate to the
  same person and not another person with the same
  name?
• Particularly difficult for early modern sources
  where names are not fixed.
• Two problems
• The existence of multiple common names. This
  problem is particularly acute in local
  communities where certain surnames are dominant.
• Variation in spellings.

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Solutions

• Coding surnames using standardisation schemes, eg
  SOUNDEX or FISKs
• Using multiple passes through the data changing
  variables each time as the data is matched
• Using a combination of computer and manual
  techniques

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SOUNDEX
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SOUNDEX rules

• Names With Double Letters If the surname has any
  double letters, they should be treated as one
  letter.
• Names with Letters Side-by-Side that have the
  Same SOUNDEX Code Number should be treated as
  one letter. For example, Jackson or Schmidt.
• Names with Prefixes such as Van or De should be
  coded twice with and without the prefix
• Consonant Separators If a vowel (A, E, I, O, U)
  separates two consonants that have the same
  SOUNDEX code, the consonant to the right of the
  vowel is coded.

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Problems with SOUNDEX

• Does not work so well for European names. Works
  best with names of English origin
• Does not work as well with early modern names and
  spelling variants
• One solution for early modern historians is FISK

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Four Letter Initial Surname Codes (FISK)

• Consists of letters and punctuation marks
• Generated from first letter of a surname variant
  plus up to three further consonants from the
  surname.
• Vowels only used when they are the first letter
  of the surname
• A full stop is used where no second, third or
  fourth letter is available for use.

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• If surname variants are deduced to be of the same
  surname base these names are considered to form a
  distinct surname group and the same FISK is
  allocated
• Thus Eyres is coded as ARS. Group Ayres. Morrice
  is coded as MRS. Group Morris
• Bowyer is coded with Boyer and Springall with
  Springold.
• Davies and Davidson are placed in one group. ap
  Howell is included in the group Powell

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Five letter FISKs

• Used to differentiate between similar but
  distinct surname groups.
• Fifth letter would normally be a distinctive
  letter from the end of the surname, but any
  letter could be used, and often a vowel from the
  start of the surname would be convenient.
• To distinguish Partridge from Porter (FISK
  PRTR) an additional letter g is added to make the
  new FISK for Partridge (PRTRG). The code for
  Porter remains as (PRTR).
• To distinguish Bailey from Bloy (FISK BLY.) an
  additional letter y is added to make the new FISK
  for Bailey (BLY.Y) The code for Bloy remains as
  (BLY.)

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Coding

• Used to be necessary because databases could not
  handle large amounts of text
• Historians still code
• data entry may be speeded up by using simple
  codes eg. M for married, U for unmarried, and
  W for widowed but complicated coding may slow
  data entry down
• Is a form of close assessment of the data and may
  lead to the development of categories for ease
• May facilitate the process of record linkage

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Deciding to code

• Should coding take place before or after data
  entry?
• Should codes be letters or numbers? Numbers mean
  high level of error
• Coding schemes should make decisions in the light
  of other classification systems used by
  historians.
• Full code book should be developed as part of the
  documentation to accompany the database.

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Occupational analysis

• Form of post-coding
• Assist in analysing fields with numerous values
• Most common type is categorisation of
  occupational information.
• Must be able to compare with other research in
  the field and to provide as complete a picture as
  possible regarding the status and occupation of
  the population

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Coding schemes

• Modern historians use standardised occupational
  classification systems
• Early modern historians often each devise their
  own schema
• A compromise is to use a multi-dimensional
  approach each occupation is classified using
  several different methods. Occasionally
  individual occupational titles may be isolated
  where any categorisation would destroy the
  nuances of work experiences.

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Prosopography

• Mostly used for study of elites
• Database is created not from a single source but
  many bringing biographical data together
• Use relational design to avoid very large,
  multi-field databases containing many blank
  fields
• Consider issues of nominal record linkage

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Community Reconstruction

• Concentrates on bringing together all records
  from one place
• Needs careful design
• Primary methodological issue is one of record
  linkage, so documents, place names and
  individuals may all have their own ID codes

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Practical Exercises

• Source analysis and database construction
• Occupational categorisation
• Nominal record linkage and coding using SOUNDEX

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Sources

• Charles Harvey and Jon Press, Databases in
  Historical Research (Palgrave, 1996)
• Sonja Cameron and Sarah Richardson, A Computing
  Guide for Historians (Palgrave forthcoming)
• History Data Service www.ahds.ac.uk
• Free text database www.asksam.com