DEFINITION OF A GROUP

1
DEFINITION OF A GROUP

• TWO OR MORE PERSONS
• FREQUENT INTERACTION
• COMMON OBJECTIVES
• SHARED NORMS
• SHARED PERCEPTION OF MEMBERSHIP
• Two or more persons who interact regularly to
  accomplish a common purpose or goal.
• EFFECTIVE GROUPS
• SATISFACTION COMMITMENT FOR EACH MEMBER
• ACCOMPLISH THE TASK (PRODUCTIVE OUTPUT)
• Homans Classification Scheme
• Activities, Interactions, Sentiments

2
WHY DO PEOPLE JOIN GROUPS?

• JOB ASSIGNMENT (the job requires it)
• ATTRACTED TO MEMBERS (you like the people)
• ENJOY GROUP ACTIVITIES (the group does fun
  stuff)
• BELIEVE IN GROUP GOALS (the mission of the
  group)
• SATISFY THE NEED FOR AFFILIATION (youre lonely)
• USE GROUP AS A MEANS TO SOME END (instrumental)

3
TYPES OF GROUPS

• FORMAL GROUPS (Work Assignments)
• TASK FORCE temporary group TEAM permanent
  group
• MANAGEMENT TEAM (Vertical)
• COMMAND GROUP -- HIERARCHY
• FUNCTIONAL WORK TEAM (Horizontal)
• PRODUCT OR SERVICE SELF-DIRECTED
• SPECIAL PURPOSE GROUPS (Problem-solving
  Representation)
• TASK FORCE -- NEED EXPERTISE
• COMMITTEE -- NEED REPRESENTATION
• INFORMAL GROUPS (Join Voluntary)
• FRIENDSHIP (People)
• INTEREST (Activities)

4
GROUP PROPERTIES WHICH AFFECTEFFECTIVENESS

• MEMBER COMPOSITION
• SIZE
• ROLES
• COHESION
• NORMS
• STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT

5

• MEMBER COMPOSITION
• Similarity (Homogeneity)
• Bonds Quickly
• Acts Quickly
• Diversity (Heterogeneity)
• More Contentious (Less Cohesive)
• More Deliberate (slow)
• More Status Differences
• SIZE OF GROUP
• Few Members
• More Interaction
• Everyone Participates
• Many Members
• A Leader Emerges
• A Silent Minority

6
EMERGENT VERTICAL ROLES

• LEADER
• REGULAR MEMBER
• DEVIATE
• ISOLATE

7
EMERGENT HORIZONTAL ROLES

• TASK-ORIENTED ROLES RELATIONS-ORIENTED ROLES
• IDEA INITIATOR HARMONIZER / SMOOTHER
• INFORMATION SEEKER COMPROMISER
• INFORMATION PROVIDER STANDARD MONITOR
• PROBLEM CLARIFIER GATEKEEPER
• CONSENSUS TESTER SUPPORTER
• EVALUATOR HUMORIST
• SUMMARIZER COOKIE PERSON
• SELF-ORIENTED ROLES
• WET BLANKET / BLOCKER
• RECOGNITION SEEKER
• BRAGGER
• DOMINATOR
• GROUP CLOWN
• FIGHT PICKER

8
COHESIVENESS

• CAUSES
• MEMBER SIMILARITY (HOMOGENEITY)
• GROUP SIZE
• ISOLATION
• COMPETITION / EXTERNAL THREAT
• REWARD SYSTEM
• DEPENDENCE PATTERN
• INTERACTION AND PARTICIPATION
• ENTRANCE STANDARDS (EXCLUSIVITY)
• CONSEQUENCES
• MEMBER SATISFACTION
• PERFORMANCE
• SUBOPTIMIZATION
• FEELING OF WE-NESS
• RESISTANCE TO CHANGE
• RESPONSIBLE ACTIVITY

9
MANIPULATING COHESION

• TO INCREASE GROUP COHESION
• INCREASE MEMBER HOMOGENEITY (Similarity)
• INCREASE OPPORTUNITIES FOR INTERACTION AMONG
  MEMBERS
• DECREASE GROUP SIZE
• INTRODUCE COMPETITION WITH OTHER GROUPS
• ISOLATE FROM OTHER GROUPS
• ALLOCATE REWARDS TO THE GROUP
• CREATE MORE TASK COMPLEXITY AMBIGUITY
• DECREASE GROUP COHESION
• INDUCE DISAGREEMENT OVER OBJECTIVES
• INCREASE MEMBER HETEROGENEITY (Diversity)
• RESTRICT INTERACTION AMONG MEMBERS
• INCREASE GROUP SIZE
• INTRODUCE A NEW DOMINATING MEMBER TO THE GROUP
• ALLOCATE REWARDS TO INDIVIDUALS WITHIN THE GROUP
• REMOVE ISOLATION BARRIERS
• TRANSFER MEMBERS (Break up the old gang)

10
NORMS

• SUMMARIZE SIMPLIFY GROUP EXPECTATIONS
• APPLY ONLY TO OVERT BEHAVIOR
• ONLY DEVELOP FOR IMPORTANT GROUP BEHAVIORS
• DEVELOP GRADUALLY
• DO NOT APPLY EQUALLY TO EVERYONE WITHIN THE GROUP
• REASONS NORMS FORM
• TO HELP THE GROUP SURVIVE
• TO INCREASE THE PREDICTABILITY OF GROUP MEMBER
  BEHAVIOR
• TO REDUCE EMBARRASSING INTERPERSONAL PROBLEMS
  FOR MEMBERS
• TO ENCOURAGE MEMBERS TO EXPRESS THE CENTRAL
  VALUES OF THE GROUP IN A PUBLIC WAY
• TO SEND A SIGNAL TO OUTSIDERS THAT WERE A
  STRONG GROUP

11
TYPES OF NORMS

• PERFORMANCE NORMS
• HOW HARD MEMBERS SHOULD WORK
• HOW TO DO THE JOB
• EXPECTED LEVEL OF OUTPUT
• APPROPRIATE LEVELS OF TARDINESS
• APPEARANCE NORMS
• APPROPRIATE DRESS WHEN TOGETHER
• LOYALTY TO THE WORK GROUP
• WHEN TO LOOK BUSY
• WHEN ITS OK TO GOOF OFF
• SOCIAL INTERACTION NORMS
• WHO CAN WE HANG OUT AND SOCIALIZE WITH ON-THE
  JOB?
• WHO CAN WE BE FRIENDS WITH, BOTH ON AND OFF THE
  JOB?
• REGULATES SOCIAL INTERACTIONS INSIDE AND OUTSIDE
  THE GROUP
• RESOURCE ALLOCATION NORMS
• WHO SHOULD BE ASSIGNED TO EACH JOB?
• WHO SHOULD BE THE NEXT TO RECEIVE NEW TOOLS OR
  EQUIPMENT?
• HOW MUCH OF A PAY INCREASE SHOULD EACH MEMBER
  GET?
• WHO SHOULD RECEIVE THE NEXT PROMOTION?

12
NORM STRENGTHJACKSON (65)

• INTENSITY AND CRYSTALLIZATION AFFECT NORM
  STRENGTH
• HIGH - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
  - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
• HIGH STRONG
• CONFLICT ENFORCED
• NORMS
• INTENSITY - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
  - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
• NORMLESS VACUOUS
• CONSENSUS
• LOW - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
  - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
• LOW HIGH
• CRYSTALLIZATION
• INTENSITY WIDE EMOPTIONAL SWINGS IN FEELING,
  PEOPLE GET UPSET WHEN NORM IS VIOLATED
• CRYSTALLIZATION THERE IS STRONG AGREEMENT
  ABOUT WHAT IS IS NOT APPROPRIATE

13
HOW COHESIVENESS AND PERFORMANCE NORMS INTERACT

• HIGH - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
  - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
• MODERATE HIGH
• PERFORMANCE PERFORMANCE
• PERFORMANCE - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
  - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
• NORMS
• LOW LOWEST
• PERFORMANCE PERFORMANCE
• LOW - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
  - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
• LOW HIGH
• COHESIVENESS
• COHESIVENESS -- DO THE TEAM MEMBERS ENCOURAGE
  EACH OTHER TO WORK TOGETHER?
• PERFORMANCE NORMS -- DO THE TEAM MEMBERS ALL WANT
  TO PERFORM AT A HIGH LEVEL?

14
STAGES OF GROUP DEVELOPMENT

• TRADITIONAL VIEW (No pressing time pressures)
• FORMING
• INTRODUCTIONS, ORIENTATION AND DISCOVERY
• STORMING
• CONFLICT, COMPETITION FOR ROLES, GOAL DISPUTES
• NORMING
• COHESION ESTABLISHED, PROCEDURES, NORMS FORM
• PERFORMING
• COOPERATION PARTICIPATION, TASKS ACCOMPLISHED
• ADJOURNING
• GROUP CELEBRATES ITS SUCCESSES, THEN DISBANDS
• PUNCTUATED EQUILIBRIUM MODEL (Deadlines imposed)
• INITIAL ARRANGEMENTS ASSIGNMENTS
• MIDPOINT REVOLUTION (Panic Attack!)
• FOCUSED FINISH (Final burst of energy)

15
THREE VIEWS OF CONFLICT

• TRADITIONAL VIEW
• Conflict is dysfunctional, destructive and
  irrational
• Usually caused by poor communication, a lack of
  trust, or a failure to be responsible to the
  needs of others.
• STAMP IT OUT!
• HUMAN RELATIONS VIEW
• Conflict is natural in groups and organizations
• It may even be beneficial on occasion. Learn to
  live with it.
• TOLERATE IT!
• INTERACTIONIST VIEW
• Without conflict, we become static and
  non-responsive
• Conflict keeps us viable and creative, but there
  are two kinds of conflict
• FUNCTIONAL and DYSFUNCTIONAL.
• Functional conflict improves long-term group
  performance.
• ENCOURAGE IT!

16
CONFLICT INTENSITY CONTINUUM

• MINOR DISAGREEMENTS, MISUNDERSTANDINGS
• OVERT QUESTIONING OR CHALLENGING OTHERS
• ASSERTIVE VERBAL ATTACKS
• THREATS AND ULTIMATUMS
• AGGRESSIVE PHYSICAL ATTACKS
• OVERT EFFORTS TO DESTROY THE OTHER PARTY
• AT WHAT POINT DOES THE CONFLICT BECOME
  DYSFUNCTIONAL?
• HOW DO WE DEFUSE DYSFUNCTIONAL CONFLICT?

17
CONFLICT STIMULATION TECHNIQUES(SOME CONFLICT IS
GOOD!)

• INCREASE COMPETITION AMONG INDIVIDUALS AND TEAMS
• Contests and incentives based on performancewe
  know the rules!
• COMMUNICATE WITH LESS PRECISION
• Send ambiguous messages and give very general
  instructions which will be open to differing
  interpretations of what to do, etc.
• HIRE OR BRING IN OUTSIDERS
• Add people who differ regarding their
  backgrounds, values and attitudes (increase
  heterogeneity)we need some new ideas!
• RESTRUCTURE THE ORGANIZATIONMAKE CHANGES
• Realign work groups, alter the rules, etcshake
  the place up!
• ENCOURAGE DISSENTAPPOINT A DEVILS ADVOCATE
• Sensitize the members that its ok to disagree
  or raise concerns. Designate a critic to
  purposely argue against the majority position.

18
CONTROLLING CONFLICT(LEARNING HOW TO LIVE WITH
CONFLICT)

• EXPAND THE RESOURCE BASE
• Can we find more resources so we dont have to
  fight over them?
• Find ways to increase budgets, provide more
  space, etc.
• SET SUPERORDINATE GOALS
• Focus attention on higher-level objectivesthe
  corporate goals that cannot be attained without
  cooperation.
• IMPROVE THE COORDINATION OF INTERDEPENDENCIES
• Develop better coordination and communication
  channels to bridge the gap between interdependent
  departments and groups. Consider liaison roles,
  task forces, and other integrating mechanisms.
• MATCH PERSONALITIES WORK HABITS OF EMPLOYEES
• Dont make incompatible personalities work
  together continuously. Consider a transfer for
  one or both of them to other units.

19
RESOLVING AND ELIMINATING CONFLICT(CONFLICT IS
BADGET RID OF IT)

• AVOIDANCE OF CONFLICT
• If I ignore itmaybe it will die down and go
  away! Separate the parties involvedgive them
  time to cool off.
• COMPROMISE
• If our goals are incompatible, we must bargain
  with each other to resolve the conflict. Each
  party gives something up to reach an agreement (a
  lose-lose situation).
• CONFRONT THE CONFLICT AND RESOLVE IT
• Sit down and discuss the issues face-to-face in
  a mature fashion. Search for a win-win
  solution, or agree on how the conflict will be
  resolved (superior decision, arbitration,
  alternative dispute resolution, etc).

20
CONFLICT RESOLUTION TECHNIQUES

• AVOIDANCE
• Withdraw from or suppress conflict
• SMOOTH OVER
• Play down differences, emphasize common
  interests
• COMPROMISE
• Each party gives something up
• AUTHORITATIVE COMMAND
• Top management mandates a solution
• ALTER STRUCTURAL VARIABLES
• Redesign jobs, reassign tasks and personnel
• TRAINING TO CHANGE ATTITUDES BEHAVIORS
• Raising sensitivity, learning to negotiate, etc.
• PROBLEM-SOLVING MEETINGS
• Face-to-face discussions to find a win-win
  solution
• FOCUS ON SUPERORDINATE GOALS
• A corporate goal that cannot be attained without
  cooperation
• EXPAND SCARCE RESOURCES
• Find ways to increase budgets, provide more
  space, etc.

21
CONFLICT-HANDLING STYLES GRIDTHOMAS (76)

• ASSERTIVE ----------------------------
  -----------------------------
• COMPETITIVE COLLABORATIVE
• SATISFY OWN
• CONCERNS COMPROMISING
• AVOIDANT ACCOMMODATIVE
• UNASSERTIVE ----------------------------
  -----------------------------
• UNCOOPERATIVE
  COOPERATIVE
• SATISFY THE
• CONCERNS OF OTHERS
• Is this a DISTRIBUTIVE (Zero-sum) game -- How
  shall we split the pie?
• Or, is this an INTEGRATIVE (Proactive) game --
  How to create a larger pie?

22
THOMAS CONFLICT RESOLUTION STRATEGIES - 1

• AVOIDANT
• NON-ATTENTION
• PHYSICAL SEPARATION
• LIMIT INTERACTION
• Let people cool down and regain perspective
• Issue is trivial, more important issues are
  pressing
• Potential disruptions outweigh the benefits of
  resolution
• There is no chance for you to satisfy your
  concerns
• When others can resolve the conflict more
  effectively
• ACCOMMODATIVE
• APPEASEMENT GIVE AN OLIVE BRANCH
• SMOOTH OVER DIFFERENCES
• CAVE IN
• When harmony and stability are quite important
• When the goals pursued are not critical to us
• To build social credits (idiosyncratic) for
  later issues
• When you find you were wrong, or to show youre
  reasonable
• To satisfy others and maintain their cooperation

23
THOMAS CONFLICT RESOLUTION STRATEGIES - 2

• COMPETITIVE
• USE OF FORCE, POWER
• AUTHORITATIVE COMMANDS
• ALLIES, DOMINANT COALITIONS
• When the goals pursued are incompatible with
  others goals
• When important, yet unpopular actions must be
  taken
• On issues where there can be no compromise, and
  time is critical
• When we think were in the right
• Against those who have taken unfair advantage
  in the past
• COMPROMISING
• BARGAINING
• MEDIATION
• ARBITRATION
• When opponents with equal power have mutually
  exclusive goals
• To arrive at expedient solutions under time
  pressure
• To achieve temporary settlements to complex
  issues
• As a backup (Plan B) when competitive and
  collaborative attempts fail
• When goals are not worth the disruption of
  assertive approaches

24
THOMAS CONFLICT RESOLUTION STRATEGIES - 3

• COLLABORATIVE
• PROBLEM-SOLVING MEETINGS
• CONFRONTATION AND HONEST COMMUNICATION
• SEARCH FOR SUPERORDINATE GOALS
• EXPAND SCARCE RESOURCES
• When both sets of concerns are too important to
  be compromised
• When the goals of both parties differ, but are
  potentially compatible
• When interaction and cooperation are very
  important for goal attainment
• To work through feelings that have interfered
  with a relationship

25
GROUND RULES FOR CONFRONTATION

• Review and clarify the issues and facts
• Begin with a positive overture
• Communicate freely, dont hold back grievances
• Address problems, not personalities
• Dont attack things that are irrelevant
• Keep focused on specifics dont argue aimlessly
• Dont use inflammatory rhetoric
• Make sure all participants say all they want to
  say