Selfesteem

1
Self-esteem

• What is it, where does it come from, and why do
  we need it?

2
Overview of topic

• What is self-esteem?
• What causes high and low self-esteem?
• Why do we need self-esteem?

3
What is self-esteem?
4
Global self-esteem

• Self-esteem is defined as a certain average tone
  of self-feeling which each one of us carries
  about with him, and which is independent of the
  objective reasons we may have for satisfaction
  and discontent (James, 1890)

5
Self-esteem scale items

• On the whole, I am satisfied with myself.
• At times I think I am no good at all.
• I feel that I have a number of good qualities.
• I certainly feel useless at times.
• I take a positive view of myself.
• from Rosenberg, 1979

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James formula for self-esteem

• With no attempt there can be no failure with no
  failure, no humiliation. So our self-feeling in
  this world depends entirely on what we back
  ourselves to be and do ... thus,
• Success
• Self-esteem ------------------
• Pretensions
• Such a fraction may be increased as well by
  diminishing the denominator as by increasing the
  numerator. (James, 1890)

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Self-discrepancy theory

• Domains of the self
• Actual self
• Ideal self
• Ought self
• Standpoints on the self
• Own personal perspective
• Perspective of a significant other
• Higgins, 1987

• (own, other)
• (own, other)
• (own, other)

self - guides
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Self-discrepancy theory

• Emotional reactions reflect discrepancies between
  the actual self and self-guides
• actual / own ideal
• actual / other ideal
• actual / own ought
• actual / other ought
• Higgins, 1987

• sadness, disappointment
• shame, embarrassment
• guilt, self-contempt
• fear, feeling threatened

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Features of high self-esteem

• Traditional view
• Positive view of self worthwhile and valuable
• Liking oneself (and accepting weaknesses)
• Feeling secure about self
• Alternative view
• Promoting self as better than others
• Denying threats to positive self-image

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Features of low self-esteem ...

• Traditional view
• Negative view of self worthless
• Self-loathing and insecurity
• Psychological and behavioural problems
• Alternative view
• Neutral self-evaluation
• Cautious self-presentation
• Uncertainty about self?

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Origins of self-esteem
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Predictors of global self-esteem

• From James formula
• Average of domain-specific self-evaluations,
  weighted by importance
• Results from Harter (1993)
• Self-evaluations in important domains correlate
  with global self-esteem at r .70
• Self-evaluations in unimportant domains correlate
  with global self-esteem at r .30

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Multiple domains/dimensions

• Range of correlations with global self-worth
• athletic competence
• behavioural conduct
• physical appearance
• scholastic competence
• social acceptance
• summarised by Harter, 1999

• r .23 to .42
• r .32 to .50
• r .52 to .80
• r .33 to .54
• r .32 to .58

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Social support as mediator
Physical appearance Athletic competence Social
acceptance
Global self-worth
Scholastic competence Behavioural conduct
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A word of caution

• Findings based on correlational data
• Two possibilities
• Domain-specifics ? global self-esteem
• Global self-esteem ? domain-specifics
• A bit of both?
• Different for different people?
• (Hoyle et al., 1999)

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Self-enhancement strategies

• Self-serving bias in attributions
• Upward and downward comparison
• Better-than-average effect
• Basking-in-reflected-glory
• Prejudice
• ...
• (see Sedikides Gregg, 2003)

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Self-enhancement strategies

• Self-promotion function
• Greater among high SE people
• Self-protection function
• Occur especially when SE is threatened
• Subject to plausibility constraints
• Strategic self-enhancement

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Self-esteem is constructed

• Socially constructed
• depends on social value of domains
• depends on social comparison standards
• Individually constructed
• self-promotion and self-protection strategies
• diverse, pervasive, subtle and strategic
• BUT thats not the whole story ...

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Heritability of self-esteem

• Neiss Sedikides (2001) review BG studies of
  global and domain-specific self-esteem
• Few studies, but (fairly) consistent results
• Genetic influences substantial (30-50)
• Shared environment minimal (mostly lt 10)
• Non-shared environment largest (often gt 50)

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Heritability of self-esteem

• How can we explain genetic influences on SE?
• BG research does not tell us the mechanism!
• But here are some thoughts
• Genetic differences in positive emotionality?
• Implies global SE ? domain-specific evaluations
• Genetic dispositions in particular domains?
• Physical characteristics ? appearance SE (40-80)
• Physical characteristics ? athletic SE (40-50)
• Intelligence ? scholastic SE (20-60)

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Why do we need self-esteem?
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Psychoneuroimmunology

• Research by Strauman et al. (1993) among anxious,
  dysphoric and nondistressed Ps.
• Self-discrepancy priming manipulation
• Participants answered questions relating to their
  own self-guides or to those of another
  participant
• Theoretical model
• Activation of self-discrepancy
• Negative psychological situation (appraisal)
• Negative affect
• Alteration in immune response

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Psychoneuroimmunology

• Anxious Ps
• Greater actual-ought discrepancies
• Priming with self-discrepancies lead to
• more anxious responses
• higher cortisol level (hormonal indication of
  stress) and lower natural killer cell activity
  (immune function)
• Dysphoric Ps
• Greater actual-ideal discrepancies
• Priming with self-discrepancies lead to
• more dysphoric responses
• lower natural killer cell activity

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Psychological well-being

• Taylor and Brown (1988) reviewed evidence linking
  self-enhancement and mental health
• Three positive illusions about the self
• Unrealistically positive views of the self
• Exaggerated perceptions of personal control
• Unrealistic optimism
• All of these illusions are weaker, or absent,
  among depressives and Ps with low self-esteem

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Psychological well-being

• Positive illusions promote
• Happiness and contentment
• Experimental research shows causal role of
  positive illusions in producing positive mood
• Ability to care for others
• Perhaps through influence of positive mood
• Capacity for creative and productive work
• Facilitation of intellectually creative
  functioning
• Enhance motivation, persistence and performance

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Terror management theory

• Although humans share with other forms of life a
  basic instinct for self-preservation, they are
  unique in their possession of intellectual
  capacities that make them explicitly and
  painfully aware of the inevitability of their
  mortality. ... Humans must live with the
  knowledge that the most basic of their needs and
  desires ultimately will be thwarted. Knowledge of
  the inevitability of death gives rise to the
  potential for paralyzing terror, which would make
  continued goal-directed behavior impossible
  (Psyszczynski, Greenberg Solomon, 1997)

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Terror management theory

• Terror is managed by a dual-component cultural
  anxiety buffer, consisting of
• an individuals personalized version of the
  cultural worldview, which consists of a set of
  benign concepts for understanding the world and
  ones place in it, a set of standards through
  which one can attain a sense of personal value,
  ...
• self-esteem, or a sense of personal value, which
  is attained by believing that one is living up to
  the standards of value that are part of the
  cultural worldview (Psyszczynski, Greenberg
  Solomon, 1997)

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Self-esteem as an anxiety buffer

• Greenberg et al (1992) reported 3 experiments on
  self-esteem and anxiety (2 x 2 design)
• Manipulation of self-esteem
• Positive/neutral feedback on personality test
• Positive/no feedback on verbal intelligence
  test
• Manipulation of threat
• Watching a video about death
• Threat of painful electric shocks

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Self-esteem as an anxiety buffer

• Measures of anxiety
• Self-reported anxiety
• Skin conductance (physiological arousal)
• Results
• In neutral/no feedback conditions, the threats
  were clearly associated with increased anxiety
• Among participants whose self-esteem had been
  boosted, anxiety was significantly reduced for
  the threat conditions, in some cases to normal
  levels

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Sociometer theory

• Belongingness hypothesis
• Human beings have a pervasive desire to form and
  maintain at least a minimum quantity of lasting,
  positive, and significant interpersonal
  relationships (Baumeister Leary, 1995, p. 497)
  
• Sociometer hypothesis
• The self-esteem system is essentially a
  sociometer that monitors the quality of an
  individuals interpersonal relationships and
  motivates behaviors that help the person to
  maintain a minimum level of acceptance by other
  people (Leary Baumeister, 2000, p. 9)

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Evidence for sociometer theory

• Self-esteem responds strongly to inclusion and
  exclusion.
• Trait self-esteem is related to perceived
  relational appreciation and devaluation.
• The primary dimensions of self-esteem reflect
  attributes relevant to being valued as a
  relational partner.
• Public events affect self-esteem more than
  private ones.
• The importance people place on dimensions of
  self-esteem is interpersonally determined.

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Correlates of low self-esteem

• Leary, Schreindorfer Haupt (1995) reviewed
  various concomitants of low self-esteem
• Dysphoric emotions
• Substance abuse
• Irresponsible sexual behaviour
• Aggression
• Membership in deviant groups
• Eating disorders
• Effects of real, anticipated or imagined rejection

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Evaluation of sociometer theory

• Explains why self-esteem should be important
• evolutionary basis
• related to survival value of belonging
• Evidence supports self-esteem/belonging link
• but
• Might self-esteem also have other functions?
• (see excellent chapter by Kirkpatrick Ellis,
  2001)

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Conclusions

• What is self-esteem?
• Favourable evaluation of oneself
• May be global or domain-specific
• Where does self-esteem come from?
• Domain-specific self-evaluations
• Self-enhancement processes
• Genetics as well as environment!
• Why do we need self-esteem?
• Psychological, social and health benefits
• Terror management theory
• Sociometer theory