The last victim of the Wall. The DDR

1
The last victim of the Wall. The DDRs
shoot-to-kill order was a secret one, never
officially acknowledged. Chris Gueffroy inset,
a 20-year-old barman, had heard from a young
Grenzer that the order had been rescinded. He was
due to be conscripted into the NVA in May 1989
(the year the Wall fell), and did not want to
serve in the army of a state he despised. On the
night of 5th February, he and a friend attempted
to cross the Wall. Unfortunately for them, the
order was still in place. The two friends had
almost reached the Western marker, when Gueffroy
received ten fatal bullets in the chest. His
friend was wounded, but survived. There was such
an outcry in the West that Erich Honecker, then
Head of State, actually did, finally, rescind the
order. A simple memorial marks the place where
Gueffroy died above. The Wall, of course, is
gone. Gueffroys death, and its effects, was one
of the events presaging to the collapse of the
DDR later that year.
2
Death by natural causes Wolf-Olaf Muszynski
drowned in the cold waters of the Spree river,
1st April 1963, while attempting to swim to
freedom. His body was pulled out of the water on
the Western side. He was not shot. Statistics on
the number of deaths caused by the Wall range
from 86 shot to 227, depending on the criteria
used. Although the number shot seems small, these
Wall deaths have the power to shock because each
one was a considered individual act of
cold-blooded killing. Worse, all the victims were
desperate to escape the claustrophobic,
oppressive country in which they lived, and were
killed by their own fellow citizens for trying to
do so. The consequences of Honeckers
shoot-to-kill order amply illustrate the truth of
Stalins well-known quip A single death is a
tragedy, a million is a statistic.
3
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4
THE EAST GERMAN SOLDIER AND HIS UNIFORM From
1962, after the border had been sealed, the
majority of NVA soldiers were conscripts, who
could be as young as 18 years of age very like
Priory boys the year after Matric. They were
forced to do 18 months military service. Since
they had nowhere to go except the tiny, grim
country in which they were trapped, most
completed their service quietly and obediently,
in order to get on with their lives when it was
finished. The East German military retained the
familiar German jackboot, as well as the
traditional field-grey in its dress uniform,
throughout its brief existence. Contrary to
popular Anglo-Saxon belief, it is not a Nazi
uniform, but based on a style in use in the
German army for a long time. Everyday summer
uniform consisted of battle-dress with a rain
pattern, called Strichtarn, with a cap called a
Schiffchen, boat see 1 opposite. In general,
NVA conscripts despised their uniform for what it
represented, or at very best felt quite
indifferent to it. Another reason for this is
that, unlike, for example, South Africa, NVA
uniforms were not new, but issued over and over
again, so that they were old and worn, even when
first received. Peter Tannhoff speaks of his far
too big and worn out old boots, which two
recruits ! had already worn before me. 18
months each Not the jackboot, but the Wall, is
a symbol of the totalitarian power of the East
German State the naked, brutal power that kept
sixteen million people prisoner in their own
country for nearly thirty years.
1 Step-out uniform with Schiffchen 2
Parade-dress uniform with Stahlhelm 3 Winter
uniform with Fellmütze. East German boots and
helmet had significant differences to World War
II models. See next two slides.
5
World War II boots were brown, and had to be
polished black. The rough side of the leather was
on the outside of the lower part. Their soles
were of leather, with hobnails and steel
heel-rims. To save leather, the German army
replaced jackboots with low boots in 1942
bottom, right
German Boots
East German conscripts jackboots above were
black. The smooth side of the leather was on the
outside. Soles were of rubber. They were of two
types sturdy, round-toed leather marching boots
above, and square-toed, patent leather
officers parade boots right. The marching
boots were everyday wear. They could be fitted
with steel heel-plates to prevent wear and tear.
Conscripts boots were unlined, and provided very
little protection against the cold German winters.
The term jackboot does not exist in German
these boots are called Marschstiefeln marching
boots or Knobelbecherstiefeln.
6
German Helmets
Model 1956 Helmet
The German helmet is usually referred to as a
Stahlhelm steel helmet. Its shape was
originally intended to prevent the ears from
being lopped off by a sword-stroke during a duel.
This is the M40 helmet, in use at the time of
World War II. With variations, German steel
helmets up to the end of the Second World War all
followed this basic design in one way or another.
The East German Model 1956 steel helmet was, in
fact, originally designed in 1944. Its flatter
curve deflected bullets much better than did the
M40. Hitler rejected its style as un-German, so
that the Third Reich never used it. By 1956 it
was standard NVA issue. The double-y chin strap
fitted around the ears, and kept the helmet
firmly and comfortably in place. Until the US
developed the Kevlar helmet, the Model 1956 was
regarded as the best of the steel helmets,
though NVA soldiers had some rude names for it,
the politest of which is mushroom.
7
ABC Warfare
The Warsaw Pact armies were all prepared for
ABC Atomic, Biological, Chemical warfare,
which suggests that their regimes intended to use
such weapons against the West. Soldiers were
trained to fight while wearing protective
clothing. The key to survival was the Soviet
silicon gas mask, below, known in the NVA by the
sarcastic name Schnuffi, presumably because of
the snuffling breathing sounds made by the
wearer. In addition, soldiers were protected from
contamination by Schutzanzug protective suits,
right, that covered even their boots. These were
extremely unpleasant and heavy to wear, and were
hated by conscripts. The conscripts at right were
in the notorious top secret nuclear rocket base
at Tautenhain in Thuringia, one of the harshest
military units in the entire NVA.
Schnuffi with filter. The bag in which it was
carried was fixed to the front of the soldiers
webbing. On command, the soldiers had to crouch
down, remove the Stahlhelm, affix the mask,
replace the helmet and stand to continue
marching. There was a time-limit within which
this had to be done.
8
4
A Mini-gallery of East German Conscripts, 1960s
to1980s
Young East German conscripts, 1962-89.
Conscription was relatively new for them, have
been reintroduced in 1962 for the first time
since the Second World War. 1 New conscripts on
what might be their first 15 km route march.
Their exhaustion gives their status away. 2
More experi-enced conscripts on manoeuvres, with
Russian weapons. 3 Conscripts from the
top-secret Tautenhain nuclear rocket base on
manoeuvres, covering a truck with camouflage
netting. 4-5 Snapshots of 4 NVA conscripts
during a break in field exercises and 5 Grenzer
conscripts on patrol. Most young men who are
conscripted view it as something they would
prefer to avoid. But equally, confronted by the
ines-capable reality of tough training and
military discipline, most try to make the best of
it, and to find as much enjoyment as they can.
1
5
9
A Mini-gallery of East German Conscripts, 1970s
and 80s
3
3
2
1
4
6
5
6
1 A weary young conscript dozes on parade in
the rain, 1970s. 2 A nervous Fallschirmjäger
tries to give a brave thumbs-up on his first
jump, late 1980s 3 NVA motorised infantry in an
armoured personnel carrier, waiting to take part
in Warsaw Pact exercises, 1980. 4 Footsore
young Grenzer on a rural border patrol, 1970s.
5 Grenzer on skis, Harz mountains, winter
1970s. 6 Ducking down out of the cold wind for
a quiet smoke. As in the previous photographs,
the youthfulness of these conscripts is striking.
Already, at this age, Grenzer were expected to
shoot-to-kill anyone trying to escape from the
DDR.
10
East German infantrymen on an exercise during the
1980s. The uniforms are modern, leaf-pattern
camouflage Flecktarn battle dress of a style
used by armies world-wide. Only the Model 1956
helmet and jackboots give away the soldiers
country of origin. Had Hitler never come to
power, this is how modern German uniforms might
have looked.
11
In any army, the paratroops are the elite force.
These East German Fallschirmjäger are no
exception. They look like their brother
para-troopers world-wide. Jackboots would never
provide the necessary ankle-support for landing.
As such, they were issued rather with
laced-and-strapped jump-boots. The helicopter is
Soviet-built, with the NVA coat-of-arms on the
side. This photograph was taken on 28th
Sept-ember, 1990, when they made the last NVA
paratroop jump. These were all integrated into
the armed forces of the United Germany.
12

• The Militarisation of the DDR
• In the everyday DDR there was much talk of
  peace, but militarism was ubiquitous at every
  level of society.
• It began in Kindergarten. The little ones there
  already had to sing soldiers marching songs
  and play with toy tanks.
• It continued with pre-military training in the
  schools, in military sports camps and the Society
  for Sport and Technique GST, in Vocational
  Training, where one had to prepare for a career
  as Radio operator, heavy-duty driver or Sailor.
• Then you went to the NVA conscription for 18
  months. Those who studied first had to do 3
  years! as short-term, non-commissioned
  officers.
• After that, one became a reservist, and had to
  undergo Reservist training every two years.
• When one became too old, or was spared Reserve
  service, one became a member of the Workmens
  Fighting Groups. Even here, there were monthly
  exercises!
• E-mail from Thomas Wittig transl.
• The background picture shows a monthly meeting of
  the Kampfgruppe des Werktätiges.

13
The Fahneneid From 1962, when conscription was
introduced, all NVA soldiers had to swear an oath
on the banner of their regiment. Although the DDR
was an atheist state, this oath had an almost
mystical significance. For conscripts, it was
taken at the end of basic training, on the same
day, country-wide. It was used as the basis for
severe punishments if its provisions were broken
see last paragraph. Desertion was described as
Fahnenflucht literally, fleeing the banner The
last soldiers to swear this oath, did so in the
Autumn of 1989, only weeks before the Wall fell.
The second paragraph is the key to understanding
the DDRs political concep of the NVA. Inset
Official Fanhneneid poster.
I swear to serve the German Democratic Republic,
my Fatherland, truly at all times, and at the
command of the Workers and Peasants Government,
to protect it against all enemies. I swear as a
soldier of the National Peoples Army, to be
ready at any time, at the side of the Soviet
army, and the armies of the socialist countries
who are allied with us, to defend socialism
against all enemies, and to lay down my life in
the cause of victory. I swear to be an honest,
brave, disciplined and alert soldier, to obey
military superiors with unconditional obedience,
to carry out commands with determination, and to
keep military and state secrets. I swear
conscientiously to keep abreast of military
knowledge, to abide by military regulations, and
above all and always to preserve the honour of
our Republic and its National Peoples
Army. Should I ever violate my solemn oath on
this banner, may the severe punishment of the law
and the contempt of the working people fall upon
me.
14

• The concept of the Socialist Armed Forces
• The Socialist Doctrine
• Models Grossen Bauerkriege Peasant Revolt of
  1525 War against Napoleon, 1813 Revolutions of
  1848 and 1918 Spanish civil War, 1936.
• The Socialist struggle for peace against
  imperialist warmongering. He who works for the
  victory of Socialism, works for Peace.
• Armed forces of socialist countries work together
  for the victory of Socialism as Waffenbrüder
  brothers-in-arms
• The defining moment for the NVA the building of
  the Anti-Faschistische Schutzwalle, 13th August
  1961. Walle is a defensive rampart, e.g. a
  castle wall. The idea is that peace-loving
  Socialism is being defended against the violent
  assaults of Western imperialism, which seeks to
  destroy it.
• The Reality
• Inconsistency 1848 was bourgeois, yet held up as
  a model 1953 against the DDR a true workers
  revolt against tyranny, was brutally suppressed.
  Surprised?
• Socialist countries kept their populations in a
  permanent state of war-readiness.
• The Warsaw Pact countries were not truly
  sovereign countries fighting alongside each
  other they were puppets of the Soviet Union,
  which kept its own troops permanently stationed
  on their territories. When the Soviet Union
  coughed, the DDR leaders caught cold. Georg
  Breuer.
• The socialist countries claimed to be fighting to
  free other countries from capitalist imperialism
  and ensure thereby world peace. In fact, the
  Soviet Union was itself an imperialist power,
  spreading its doctrine by force of arms.
• Within the Warsaw Pact countries, even their own
  armed forces were turned, not against their
  enemies, but against suppressing their own
  people. This made the life, for example, of NVA
  conscripts impossible, not to say unbearable.
  See next two slides
• Waffenbrüderschaft The Red Army foreground
  and NVA background parade together. This event
  is taking place in the DDR nevertheless, the
  photograph makes it very clear who is the senior
  partner.

15
Behind the Wall, the lie persists. NVA soldiers
march in a patriotic spectacle on Marx-Engels
Platz, East Berlins equvalent of Red Square in
Moscow. To the left of the leaders and
dignitaries stand is a massive banner
proclaiming We protect the DDR. In practice,
the NVA was used by the DDR leadership for two
main tasks protecting the Soviet Union through
its membership of the Warsaw pact, and
oppressing and shooting its own citizens. Neither
involves their protection to any great degree.
16
Members of the Young Pioneers identifiable by
their blue scarves present flowers to conscripts
who have just taken the Fahneneid. The cheerful
innocence of the scene is apparently genuine, on
the part of both children and soldiers. It belies
the reality of the DDR regimes purpose, for
which these harmless emotions were
exploited. Beyond the wholesome patriotic
appearance of the parade, with its smiling young
soldiers in smart uniforms, its happy children,
lies the reality of the DDR 16 million citizens
trapped in a tiny, claustrophobic country,
regimented into ideological straitjackets,
punished for dissenting from the party line,
poor, living in a polluted environment, with no
appeal against a totalitarian regime that
exercised practically unlimited power over
them. The impression of the soldiers as
protectors and friends that this occasion evokes,
is an especially sad irony for both conscripts
and children. The soldiers can be called upon to
do almost everything except protect their fellow
citizens. Should any one of the children grow up
to attempt an escape from their country, similar
smiling young conscripts would be required to
shoot-to-kill.
The cover of the Time magazine issue that
reported the death of Peter Fechter,
illustrating, from a West-Berlin perspective,
quite how close he came to freedom.
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18
Building the later Wall. This section was erected
in the suburb of Neukölln in 1987, just three
years before the Wall fell. The segment to be
rebuilt is the stretch of wire fencing at the
right of the photograph. First, Grenzer climbed
over the old Wall and assembled a cage-like
structure to stop the workers from escaping.The
Grenzer on the left is exactly one metre from
West Berlin territory, with nothing stopping him
from fleeing.
19
Once the fencing is removed, the prefabricated
concrete segments of the new Wall are put in
place. Notice the broad, flat base, giving the
segment an L-shape.
20
The spaces between the segments are now cemented
in, while the segments themselves are welded
together along the top edge inset. The workers
are all young men hence, no doubt, the fear of
their escaping, and the need for the wire cage.
21
Broad piping is then lifted on to the top of the
Wall by crane inset, and fixed in place. The
piping made it virtually impossible for escapees
to gain a hand-hold on the top of the Wall.
22
Finally, a coat of white paint is sprayed on to
the new section of Wall. It will not remain white
for long.
23
As evening falls, work finishes, and workers and
Grenzer climb back over the Wall, home into the
DDR. The guard at left is last over, and takes
the ladder across with him. By the next morning,
the western face of the new section of Wall
already bears its first graffiti message. Is
this our fault? 5-9-87 it reads. Though West
Berliners learned to live with the Wall, they
never accepted it as a final reality. Until its
fall, it remained an offence to them.
24
The Berlin Wall A Schematic Representation
The Wall was all but uncrossable in its later
years. It was never a single entity its
structure depended upon where each particular
section was. It was expensive to operate and
maintain, so the DDR leadership sought to cut
costs wherever they could.
It is interesting to note that even those
responsible for its maintenance and operation
were not entirely trusted by their leaders due
to so many of them making a break. The DDR was
very careful whom it allowed to be Grenzer, since
many joined the Border Police in order to seek a
chance of escape. Politically suspect citizens
were not even considered.
This suspicion is confirmed by the layout of the
Wall. Note the two tracks an inspection track
for those involved in the maintenance of the Wall
3, and a patrol track for the Grenzer
patrolling it 7. The markers 6 were the
closest that the Grepo patrols were routinely
allowed to the West. Even a Grenzer could come
under fire, it would seem, for crossing over to
the Western side of the markers without proper
authorisation.
1. Concrete flagstone with or without piping on
top 2. Wire mesh fencing 3. Raked sand deatrh
strip and inspection area 4. Lighting 5.
Anti-vehicle trench could have tank-traps 6.
Outer limit of border patrol track 7. Patrol
track 8. Guide wire of guard-dog track 9.
Alarm 10. Observation tower 11. Fencing with
built-in alarm
For most Westerners, the concrete barrier on
which the murals were painted, was the Wall. For
the DDR, it was merely the border marker 1.
East Berliners never really got to see it.
Beyond the border signal fence 11 was a
concrete slab fence called the hinterland wall.
From this to the border marker was about 80
metres. The area marked as 3 was known as the
death strip. Looking at this elaborate and
dangerous structure, the word Wall, even with
an upper-case letter, can be seen to be grossly
inadequate in describing the ugly reality.
25
The Wall sometimes divided whole streets in two
for example, the Heidelbergerstrasse, pictured
here. Tank traps and ditches were designed to
keep East Germans from breaking out using
vehicles. The view is along no-mans-land.