The Turks, the UyghursUighurs, and China

1
The Turks, the Uyghurs/Uighurs,and China

• Barfield, Thomas, The Perilous Frontier, Ch 4
  pp131-163 OR
• Sinor, Denis, Sending princesses to nomads,
  Uyghur Empire in Studies in Medieval Inner Asia,
  Part V, pp18-1 OR
• Sinor, Deni, Inner Asia, a Syllabus, Ch. 13-14
  OR
• Drompp, Michael, The Uyghur Chinese Conflict of
  840-848, in Di Cosmo, Nicola, Warfare in Inner
  Asian History (500-1800), pp73-96.

2
The Turks, the Uyghurs/Uighursand China

• The Turkish Empire (552-630)
• The Turks and the Sui (581-617)
• The Turks and the Tang (617-906)
• The Empire (745-840)
• The Uyghurs and the Tang
• The Shatuo Turks
• The Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Period
  (907-960)
• The Shatuo Turks and the Five Dynasties Period

3
The Turkish Empire

• The Turks ?? or Proto-Turks were Central Asian
  nomadic tribes who migrated west between the 1st
  and 10th centuries spreading into Europe and the
  Middle East.
• Many Turkish tombs have been discovered in the
  steppe region from Mongolia westwards.
• The Turkish tribal organization was the most
  developed of the nomadic organizations
• The head of the leader tribe was acknowledged by
  the chiefs of the other tribes.
• The Leader tribe had the right to remove the
  chiefs of ordinary tribes and replace them by
  family members of the leader tribe.
• Economic base of the Turks was horse breeding.
• In the 5th century, the head of the a Turkish
  clan went to the Rouran seeking protection from
  China (the Rouran ?? (460-545) dominated the
  steppe).
• The Turkish clan were famed metal smiths and were
  granted land near a mountain quarry which looked
  like a helmet from this the Chinese called them
  ??.
• A century later, the Turks conquered the Rouran
  and established their own empire.
• The Turkish empire was a federation of several
  tribes that accepted the domination of a
  militarily powerful and authoritative leader, the
  Great Qaghan ???.
• His male relatives were given subordinated posts
  and ruled the tribes and sub-tribes.

4
The Turkish Empire (2)

• In 546, the Turks defeated the Gao-che ?? for the
  Rouran capturing 50,000 tents their leader,
  Tümän ?? asked for a marriage alliance with the
  Rouran as a reward.
• But the Rouran despised the Turks who worked in
  the Rouran iron mines and were called blacksmith
  slaves (duannu ??) so the request was denied.
• At the beginning of the 6th century, when the
  Rouran empire began to weaken, Tümän, developed
  trade with the Chinese border regions, and made a
  marriage alliance with the Western Wei.
• In 552, Tümän proclaimed himself as (emperor)
  Yili Qaghan ???? while his brother Istämi ???
  pushed westward to expand the Turkish empire.
• Tümän granted his brother, Istami, the right to
  rule over the west and when Tümän died in 553,
  his brother allowed Tümäns son, Keluo ??, to
  become the supreme ruler of the empire.
• When Keluo died, he was succeeded by his brother
  Mugan ?? who extended the Turkish empire until
  it reached from Manchuria to the Caspian Sea.

5
The Turkish Empire (3)

• The Turks received gifts from both the Northern
  Zhou and the Northern Qi courts they also acted
  as mercenaries for them.
• The Eastern Turks looked upon a divided northern
  China between the Northern Zhou and the Northern
  Qi as an area to exploit.
• The Turks had grown rich on raids on agricultural
  peoples and control of the silk routes between
  China and the west.
• The Northern Zhou asked for a daughter of the
  Turkish khan and was granted this favor in 565
  each year the Northern Zhou gave the Turks
  100,000 pieces of silk.
• The Northern Qi also gave the Turks riches so it
  would not side with its enemies.
• The Turkish leader felt that his two children to
  the south (the emperors of the Northern Zhou and
  Northern Qi) are always filial and obedient so
  he should not fear poverty.

6
The Turkish Empire (4)

• The Turks practiced fraternal succession and
  succession had been stable from brother to
  brother until all of Tümäns sons had died.
• In 576, Tardu, (descended from Istami, Tümäns
  brother) became the senior male of his generation
  and outranked the sons of his cousins he felt
  that his lineage should now rule.
• This split the Turkish Empire into two parts
  (584) -- the Eastern Turks (Dong Tujue ???) and
  the Western Turks (Xi Tujue ???).
• The Sui and the Tang played the two against each
  other and the Eastern Turks became formally
  subordinate to the Chinese Emperor.
• The Western Khan, Tardu, almost succeeded in
  reuniting the Turkish empire around 600 but the
  Chinese caused a revolt of his vassals, and Tardu
  died in 603.

7
The Turkish Empire (5)

• At the height of the Turkish Empire it stretched
  from the Ordos bend of the Yellow River to the
  north of modern Hebei province.
• By the end of the 700s, the Turks brought about
  their own end by constantly fighting within the
  ruling tribes.
• In 744, the Uyghur, drove out the Eastern Turk
  rulers and established the second great Mongolian
  empire reaching from the Caspian Sea to Manchuria
  (744-840).
• Location of Turkey (current)

• Map of the Western (purple) and Eastern (blue)
  Turks at their height. Lighter areas show direct
  rule darker areas show spheres of influence.

8
The Turks and the Sui

• Under the Sui dynasty (581-619), Turkic raids
  into China were unsuccessful and the Eastern
  Turks became important allies of the Sui.
• In 601, Tardu threatened the Sui capital but
  while Tardu was attacking he had to return to put
  down rebellions against him.
• In 605, the Sui sent 20,000 Turks against the
  Qidans the Turks defeated the Qidan.
• During the reign of Sui Yangdi (r.605-618), the
  Western Turks were only a minor problem as the
  Turkish Khans mother was a Chinese who lived in
  the Sui capital as a hostage and as a liaison
  person.
• When the Western Khan showed some independence,
  Sui Yangdi set up a puppet in his place.

9
The Turks and the Sui (2)

• The Eastern khan was a threat along Suis
  northern frontier so the Sui emperors repaired
  and extended the Great Wall.
• The Sui policy was to weaken the Turks and to use
  them against Suis enemies Sui Yangdi
• Kept the sons and nephews of the Turkish khans in
  the Sui capital for education,
• Settled the Turks within the Chinese borders,
• Gave tributes and return gifts Chinese silk for
  Turkish horses, etc.
• In 618 Sui Yangdi was murdered and Sui collapsed
  the Turks happily received envoys from all
  contenders who sent gifts.
• They also received many refugees including part
  of the Sui court with whom the khan was related
  through marriage.
• They supported different groups with horses and
  small numbers of troops but the khan himself did
  not take part.
• During the rebellions against the Sui dynasty, Li
  Yuan (r.618-626) was one of the many contenders
  for the imperial throne.
• He was an important frontier commander in Taiyuan
  who was loyal to the Sui dynasty and was related
  to the Sui imperial house through marriage.

10
The Turks and the Tang

• The Li family was part of the northwestern
  aristocratic elite
• Li Yuans mother was the daughter of Dugu ?? Xin
  who had helped to found the Northern Zhou.
• Her sisters were married to the founder of the
  Northern Zhou and to the founder of the Sui.
• The elite at that time had traditional Chinese
  education but placed strong emphasis on martial
  virtues and personal participation in Turkish
  cultural traits.
• These families were a mix of old frontier
  Chinese, Xianbei, Xiongnu and Turkish backgrounds
  but over the years had lost specific tribal ties
  and become a social class with strong
  aristocratic traditions.
• During Li Yuans campaigns to establish the Tang,
  he received help from the Turks by promising them
  all the loot taken during the campaigns.
• He said that by restoring order the Chinese and
  the Turks could reestablish the old tributary
  system which had benefited the Turks.
• The Turkish khan gave Li Yuan thousands of horses
  and a few hundred men.
• With the help of armies raised by his sons and a
  daughter, Li Yuan quickly took the capital at
  Changan and declared himself emperor in 618 but
  battles to unify China continued to 623.

11
The Turks and the Tang (2)

• In the early years of the Tang (618-930), it set
  a policy of appeasement toward the Turks --
  similar to that of the Sui.
• Li Yuans second son, Li Shimin, had won the
  majority of the battles to help his father found
  the dynasty but his elder brother was in line for
  the throne.
• Li Shimin (Tang Taizong r.626-649) killed his
  elder brothers then went on to his fathers
  palace and forced him to abdicate.
• In 629, there was discontent on the steppes due
  to natural disasters and there were widespread
  revolts.
• The Tang sent large numbers of troops and Turkish
  leaders surrendered.
• Within a few years, the Turkish tribes either
  went over to the Tang or fled west.
• Chinas problem was what to do with the large
  number of Turks now under its control.
• Taizong did the following
• Divided them into small tribes,
• Chose 500 leaders from the Turkish elite to rule
  over them,
• Chose 100 to serve at court,
• Summoned prominent families to move to Changan.

12
The Turks and the Tang (3)

• Incorporated the Turkish tribal structure into
  the Tang government and Turkish leaders became
  Tang officials the Turks now carried Chinese
  titles and fought by their side in their wars.
• For the next 50 years, Tang Taizong was accepted
  as ruler over both the steppe and China and the
  Turks was under Chinese rule for over 50 years
  (630-682).
• Turkish troops under the Tang banner expanded
  Chinas borders deep into central Asia.
• By 659, the Tang Emperor of China could claim to
  rule the entire Silk Road as far as Persia.
• After Taizongs death, the Eastern Turks reunited
  again attacked China and China returned to the
  defensive policies used by the Han.
• The Turks tried to attack the Chinese frontier
  but failed as the Tang was able to attack the
  Turks before they were fully reorganized and a
  number of tribal leaders abandoned the frontier
  for the old Turkish homeland in Mongolia.

13
The Uyghur Empire

• The Uyghur "Uyghur" ??? was one of the largest
  and most enduring Turkic peoples living in
  Central Asia.
• 8.68 million Uyghurs (2004) live primarily in the
  Xinjiang some live in Taoyuan, Hunan, as well as
  Beijing and Shanghai.
• There are also existing Uyghur communities in
  Kakazhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Ubekistan and Turkey.
• The earliest use of the term 'Uyghur' (Weihu) was
  during the Northern Wei Dynasty (386-534 CE)
  part of the Gaoche.
• They were a tribal federation ruled first by the
  Xiongnu, then by the Rouran (460-545), by the
  Hepthalites (541-565) and then by the Eastern
  Turks (Gorturks) .

14
The Uyghur Empire (2)

• The Uyghurs were, in some ways, similar to the
  Turks in customs, titles, and political
  organization but their political structure was
  more stable and they developed a greater degree
  of civilization.
• They practiced lineal succession power was
  passed to sons unless the successor was
  assassinated and replaced by an opponent who
  would then be succeeded by his son.
• They survived on the silk trade and gifts from
  China and remained at peace acting as Tang
  allies.
• Hepthalites (also known as White Huns, the Yanda
  ?? or the Hua ? a nomadic people who lived across
  northern China, Central Asia, and northern India
  in the 4th to the 6th centuries)

• Map of the Uyghur Khaganate and areas under its
  dominion (in yellow) at its height, c. 820 AD.

15
The Uyghurs and the Tang

• The Tang court asked the Uyghurs for help against
  the An-lu-shan rebellion (755-63) and the Uyghur
  heir-apparent led a force into China with 4,000
  horsemen.
• In late 756 the Uyghurs helped China to reclaim
  their two old capitals, Changan and Luoyang.
• There was a high price for this help as the
  Uyghurs looted Luoyang and were finally stopped
  when the city elders bribed them with enormous
  quantities of silk and embroidery.
• The Uighurs received two Tang princesses in
  marriage and was given a third in 821.
• They were also given an annual gift of 20,000
  rolls of silk and their leaders received honorary
  titles and gifts.

• China under the Tang dynasty (yellow) and some of
  its vassal states.

16
The Uyghurs and the Tang (2)

• They were paid 40 pieces of silk for every horse
  brought to China while on the steppe a horse was
  only worth one piece of silk.
• The Uyghurs took tens of thousands of the poorest
  quality of horses to Tang annually. the Tang
  could not refuse but often withheld payment for
  years.
• The Uyghur victories for China had restored Tang
  power but had not put an end to the disorder.
• Around 825, rebellions broke out against the
  Uyghur throne and in 839 a severe winter killed
  much of the livestock.
• In 840, at the invitation of a rebel Uyghur
  chief, Kirghiz forces entered the empire killed
  the khan and forced the Uyghurs to migrate to
  Xinjiang and Gansu and the Central Asian steppes.
• Groups of Uyghurs also fled south to the Tang
  border.
• The first group to arrive, about 30,000, were
  aristocrats led by the brother of the former
  ruler who had been assassinated.
• The Tang at first refused to grant asylum and
  urged them to return to their former homeland as
  the Tang was afraid that the Kirghiz might attack
  if asylum was granted.
• They were also afraid that settlement of large
  numbers of non-Han populations within their
  borders might create trouble.

17
The Uyghurs and the Tang (3)

• A second group of refugees of about 100,000
  arrived accompanied by a Tang princess aunt of
  the then Tang emperor, Wuzong (r.814-846).
• The leader of this group claimed to be the new
  ruler of the Uyghur and asked for assistance to
  fight against the Kirghiz.
• The Tang asked that the princess be sent to
  Changan.
• She had lived for 22 years in an isolated country
  which was bleak and cold in felt walls and
  woolen curtains and had to eat and drink foods
  that were not palatable to her.
• She had been captured by the Kirghiz but was
  later rescued by her husband and freed by a
  Chinese detachment.
• In 843, she finally arrived in Changan where she
  was snubbed by the other imperial princesses and
  had to acknowledge the Uyghur ungratefulness for
  Chinas kindnesses and the fault of her improper
  conduct as a princess sent to pacify the
  foreigners.
• They had expected her to bring about a change in
  Uighur policies yet she had no authority in the
  Chinese court.
• Her request for cattle and sheep to feed the
  famine-stricken Uighurs was not met.

18
The Uyghurs and the Tang (4)

• In the mid 840s, the Tang court was faced with
  the problem of how to deal with the two major
  groups as well as the other splinter groups all
  asking for asylum and assistance.
• The Tang continued to refused military assistance
  but promised to give them grain.
• At the same time, the Tang beefed up the troops
  at the borders.
• The Tang admitted the first group and the leaders
  of the group were given positions and titles and
  incorporated into the Tang army but the second
  group refused to submit to the Chinese.
• The Tang then ordered the Uyghur army unit to be
  dispersed and sent to different commanders they
  refused and were massacred.
• The Qidan attacked the Uyghur and in 848, the
  Kirghiz, with an army of 70,000 wiped out the
  remaining Uyghurs and those who escaped went to
  Gansu.
• The Tang welcomed the collapse of the Uyghurs but
  without the Uyghurs, the Tang
• Had no help to put down internal rebellions
• There was no barrier between the Tang and the
  Qidans of the Manchurian steppe.

19
The Shatuo Turks

• The Western Turks had split into two (c.633)
  groups and those living near the Shatuo Desert
  called themselves Shatuo ?? Turks.
• The Shatuo was a small group, only three tribes,
  and the majority settled in northern Shansi.
• The Tang adopted their leader into the imperial
  family and gave him the name of Li.
• It was the smallest tribal federation that ever
  conquered and ruled North China.
• The Shatuo was about 2 percent of the population
  but they were governing a considerable part of
  the army was Chinese, Tartars, and other
  foreigners.
• The political organization of the Shatuo empire
  was copied from the Tang and many of the
  officials were Chinese.
• The Shatuo did not understand the difference
  between the private treasury of the emperor and
  the state treasury.
• The emperors would distribute money to the
  soldiers to keep them quiet and in so doing
  emptied the treasury resulting in a breakdown of
  the financial and economic system of the empire.

20
Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms

• Five Dynasties
• Later Liang (Han)
• Later Tang (Turk)
• ? ? (923 936),
• Later Jin (Turk)
• ?? (936-946)
• Later Han (Turk)
• ?? 947 950).
• Later Zhou (Han)

• Ten Kingdoms (Han)
• Chu
• Wu
• Wuyue
• Jingnan
• Former Shu
• Min
• Southern Han
• Later Shu
• Northern Han
• Southern Tang

21
Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms (2)

• This Period was a result of the disintegration of
  the Tang when power went from the centre to the
  provinces.
• The Five Dynasties in the North succeeded each
  other.
• Three of the five Later Tang, Later Jin, and
  Later Han were of Turkish ancestry and two of
  the five were Han Later Liang and Later Zhou.
• The Ten Kingdoms, in the South existed at the
  same time occupying different parts of southern
  China.

22
Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms (3)

• A century of struggle between the centre and the
  borders resulted in the rebellion led by Huang
  Chao (d.880).
• Luoyang surrendered to Huang Chao (880) who also
  took Changan in January of the following year.
• The emperor, Xizong ???, (r.873-888) escaped to
  Chengdu and Huang Chao established a new
  (temporary) regime.
• The Tang asked for help from the Shatuo Turks,
  led by Li Keyong ???, who commanded less than
  10,000 soldiers Changan was recaptured and the
  emperor was returned to the capital (883).
• Li Keyong was rewarded with the military
  governorship of much of northern China.
• Huang Chao was finally defeated by a coalition of
  Li Keyong and Zhu Wen ??, who had been a general
  under Huang Chao but had surrendered to the Tang.
• In 907, Zhu Wen proclaimed himself emperor of the
  Later Liang Dynasty (907 923) the first of the
  dynasties of the Five Dynasties Period.
• Zhu Wen was later defeated by the Shatuo Turks
  and Li Cunyu ???, son of Li Keyong

23
The Shatuo Turks and the Five Dynasties Period

• After defeating Zhu Wen, Li Cunyu used the slogan
  Restore the Tang and proclaimed himself emperor
  of the Later Tang (923 936), the second of the
  five dynasties in Northern China.
• Within a few months, the Later Tang united much
  of North China but it only lasted for 14 years as
  Li Cunyu was killed by his army during a mutiny
  in 925 and was succeeded by a relative, Li Siyuan
  ??? .
• When Li Siyuan died, he was succeeded by his son,
  Li Conghou ??? but he was overthrown by his
  adopted brother, Li Congke ???, who usurped the
  throne in 934.
• In 936, Shi Jingtang ???, of Turkish origin and a
  brother-in-law of the then Later Jin emperor,
  rebelled with the help of the Qidan of Manchuria
• Shi took over Luoyang and established the Later
  Jin ?? (936-946) and gave 16 prefectures around
  modern Beijing to the Qidans in return for their
  help.
• He also gave the Qidan annual tributes and the
  Qidan began to view the Later Jin as their puppet
  state and tried to take it over for themselves.
• In 946, when the Jin emperor Chudi ??
  (???)refused to submit, the Qidan attacked
  Kaifeng in 947 ending the Later Jin dynasty.

24
The Shatuo Turks and the Five Dynasties Period
(2)

• In 947, the Qidan (Yelu Ruan ??? r.947-951)
  proclaimed a Liao dynasty (907-1125) ruling the
  16 prefectures around modern Beijing but they
  were not able to occupy what they had conquered
  from the Later Jin.
• A Shatuo general, Liu Zhiyuan ???, entered
  Kaifeng in 947 and proclaimed the Later Han
  Dynasty with himself as emperor.
• As he had the same surname Liu as the imperial
  family of the Han he called his dynasty Han (947
  950).
• His successor listened to the advice of his
  officials and attacked the Qidan who had kept the
  16 provinces ceded to them by the Later Jin.
• This led to a coup by General Guo Wei ?? (of Han
  origin) who had his soldiers propose that he be
  the emperor of the Later Zhou (951-960).
• This marked the end of Shatuo rule in China.
• After the death of Guo Wei, his adopted son Chai
  Rong ?? succeeded to the throne and defeated the
  combined Qidan army and their allies.
• In 959, Chai Rong attacked the Qidan Empire to
  recover the 16 prefectures but Chai became ill
  and died leaving a boy emperor on the throne.
• The following year, the Later Zhou general, Zhao
  Kuangyin ??? staged a coup and took the throne
  for himself establishing the Song dynasty.

25
Next Week

• The Qidans and the Liao Dynasty
• Barfield, Thomas, The Perilous Frontier, pp
  164-176
• Sinor, Denis, Inner Asia, a Syllabus,
• Marriage, Kinship and Succession under the
  Chi-tan Rulers of the Liao Dynasty (907-1125) in
  Holmgren, Jennifer, Marriage, Kinship and Power
  in Northern China, Part V, pp 44-91 OR
• Twitchett, Denis Fairbank, John K., The
  Cambridge History of China The Alien Dynasties,
  (v2). pp 189-214.