WATCHING BIRDS

1
WATCHING BIRDS
AN INTRODUCTION TO ORNITHOLOGY
2
TODAYS AGENDA

• VOICE
• SONG
• SOUND
• PURPOSE
• THE BREEDING CYCLE - I
• NESTS EGGS
• COURTSHIP
• TERRITORY
• THE BREEDING CYCLE II
• HATCHING
• DEVELOPMENT OF YOUNG
• CARE OF YOUNG

3

• WHO SINGS?
• ANNUAL SONG CYCLE
• DAILY SONG CYCLE
• SONG ENVIRONMENT
• CALLS
• MIMICRY

4
SOUND

• BIRDS ARE DISTINCTIVE BY THE VARIETY OF SOUNDS
  THEY MAKE
• SOUND SEEMS TO BE INSTINCTIVE BUT EXPERIMENTS
  HAVE INDICATED THAT SOUND CAN SOMETIMES BE
  LEARNED FROM THEIR SURROUNDINGS

5

• SOUNDS COMMUNICATE MESSAGES
• HUMMINGBIRDS, NIGHTHAWK, SNIPE USE WINGS TO MAKE
  SOUNDS
• WOODPECKERS HAMMER ON HOLLOW LIMBS BRANCHES
• RUFFED GROUSE USES FLAPPING FEATHERS
• PRAIRIE CHICKEN PASSES AIR THROUGH INFLATABLE
  AIR SACKS

6
VOICE

• THE ABILITY TO LEARN VOCALIZATIONS IS LIMITED TO
  BIRDS HUMANS
• MOST BIRDS CAN BE IDENTIFIED BY THEIR VOICES

7
SONG

• BIRDS SONGS CONTAIN MORE NOTES THAN HUMANS CAN
  HEAR
• MALES DO MOST OF THE SINGING
• IN A FEW CASES BOTH SEXES SING
• BLUEBIRDS, N. ORIOLE, CARDINAL, WHITE- THROATED
  SPARROW
• MOCKINGBIRDS MALES FEMALES MAINTAIN SEPARATE
  TERRITORIES

8
ANNUAL SONG CYCLE

• USUALLY SING ONLY THE APPROPRIATE SONG FOR THE
  TIME OF THE YEAR TO COMMUNICATE THE APPROPRIATE
  MESSAGE.
• SONG DEFENDS TERRITORY ATTRACT MATES DURING
  NESTING SEASON
• MOST SONGS ARE VIGOROUS AND CONTINUOUS

9
ANNUAL SONG CYCLE

• DIFFERENT BIRDS HAVE DIFFERENT SCHEDULES
• OWLS JAN./FEB
• ROBINS SOMETIMES SING AS EARLY AS DECEMBER (IN
  TEXAS THEY USUALLY JUST CLUCK)

10
SONG SEASONAL CHANGES

• RELATED TO REPRODUCTION
• SOME BIRDS MAY PRACTICE DURING MIGRATION
• MAY NOT BE COMPLETE SONGS
• SINGING TAPERS OFF AFTER ESTABLISHING A
  TERRITORY, FINDING A MATE, RAISING YOUNG

11
SONG SEASONAL CHANGES

• AMERICAN REDSTART SINGS WHILE BUILDING NEST
  THEN STOPS COMPLETELY
• HOUSE WREN SINGS WHILE CONTINUING TO RAISE YOUNG

12
DAILY SONG CYCLE

• BIRDS SING MOST FREQUENTLY ENERGETICALLY DURING
  THE MORNING OFTEN BEFORE DAWN
• BIRDS LEAVE THEIR SINGING PLACE BEFORE SINGING
• INSECT EATERS USUALLY SING BEFORE SEED EATERS
  HOLE NESTERS ARE USUALLY LATE SINGERS

13
DAILY SONG CYCLE

• SOMETIMES BIRDS STOP SINGING ENTIRELY IN EARLY
  AFTERNOON WHEN THEY SEEM TO REST
• LATE AFTERNOON EVENING IS A PERIOD OF RENEWED
  SONG ACTIVITY
• SOME BIRDS SING ALL DAY
• RED EYED VIREO 1 SECOND SONG, 22,000 TIMES IN
  TEN HOURS

14
SONG CYCLE

• SOME BIRDS SING WHEN THERE IS MOONLIGHT
• SOME SING DIFFERENT SONGS AT DIFFERENT TIMES OF
  THE DAY
• THRUSHES EVENING SONGS, (DO THEY MEAN SOMETHING
  DIFFERENT?)

15
SONG CYCLE

• SONG FOR MOST BIRDS IS THE MOST EFFECTIVE FORM OF
  COMMUNICATION
• SOUND TRAVELS FARTHER THAN SIGHT
• ESTABLISHING TERRITORY SOUNDS ARE LOUD. USUALLY
  FIND SOUND RESONANT AREAS USE HIGHER PITCHES
• SHRUB SINGING IS USUALLY HIGHER PITCHED THAN
  TREETOP SINGING

16
CALLS

• SHORT UNMUSICAL SOUND ARE CALLS
• CALLS EXPRESS AGGRESSION, ALARM, DANGER, FOOD
  LOCATION, OTHER INFORMATION
• CALLS ARE HEARD THROUGHOUT THE YEAR

17
CALLS

• WATCH BEHAVIOR TO DETERMINE THE MEANING OF THE
  CALLS
• BIRDS ALSO COMMUNICATE BY GESTURES DISPLAYS

18
CALLS

• AGGRESSIVE CALLS ARE MOST WIDESPREAD
• DISPUTES OVER TERRITORY, A MATE, NESTING
  MATERIAL, OR FOOD
• PREVENTS PHYSICAL DAMAGE TO EACH BIRD INSTEAD OF
  FIGHTING

19
CALLS

• CALLS HELP FLOCKS STAY TOGETHER. MAY INFORM
  OTHERS OF FOOD SOURCES
• CALLS MADE BY NON-TERRITORIAL BIRDS LIKE GULLS
  WHEN THERE IS MORE FOOD THAN THEY CAN EAT.

20
DANGER ALARM CALLS

• OFTEN RECOGNIZED UNDERSTOOD BY OTHER SPECIES
• GEESE, CROWS, SOME OTHER BIRDS ALWAYS HAVE A
  LOOKOUT FOR DANGER WHILE OTHERS FEED
• BLUE JAY ALARM CALLS MAKE OTHER BIRDS SILENT
• DIFFERENT INTENSITY ALARM CALLS DEPEND ON THE
  DANGER BIRDS MAY ALSO HAVE AN ALL CLEAR CALL
  WHEN DANGER IS PASSED

21
DANGER ALARM CALLS

• DUCKLINGS MAKE CHEEPING NOISES BEFORE THEY HATCH
• MAY HELP MOTHER RECOGNIZE THEM WHEN THEY HATCH
• CHICKS BEG NOISILY FOR FOOD
• USUALLY THE NOISIEST BEGGAR IS FED FIRST

22
DANGER ALARM CALLS

• BIRDS ALSO HAVE CALLS FOR FULL, CONTENTED, WARM
  COLD, WET, OR CONFRONTED WITH AN ENEMY
• SMALL BIRDS HAVE HIGH ALARM NOTES THE PREDATOR
  MAY NOT HEAR THEM
• SCOLDING NOTES ARE HARSH EASY TO LOCATE
  ENABLING OTHER BIRDS TO LOCATE THE BIRD AND
  ASSIST.

23
DANGER ALARM CALLS

• BEGGING CALLS ARE LOUD ROUGH TO HELP PARENTS
  FIND THEM
• ALARM CALLS OF YOUNG BIRDS ARE THINNER HARDER
  TO LOCATE

24
MIMICRY

• LIMITED TO BIRDS AND HUMANS
• MOCKINGBIRDS DO NOT FOOL OTHER SPECIES A
  POTENTIAL PROBLEM OTHERWISE
• TALKING BIRDS SUCH AS PARROTS ARE LESS COMMON
  THAN MIMICS
• AFRICAN GRAY PARROTT PROBABLY THE BEST
• CROWS JAYS CAN TALK AS WELL
• BIRDS DO NOT REALLY UNDERSTAND THE MEANING OF
  WHAT THEY SAY
• CANNOT PUT TOGETHER SENTENCES THEY HAVE NOT HEARD
  SPOKEN

25
SOUNDS

• VOCALIZATION DEVELOPMENT
• SOUND PRODUCTION

26
DEVELOPMENT OF VOCALIZATIONS

• IMPORTANT FROM THE TIME BIRDS HATCH
• PASSERINES REARED IN COMPLETE SILENCE DEVELOP
  POOR SONGS
• MOST LEARNING IS ACCOMPLISHED IN THE FIRST YEAR
  OF LIFE
• SOME BIRDS START PRACTICE AS A NESTLING
• SONG SPARROWS - _at_ 13 DAYS
• ROBINS - _at_ 21 DAYS
• Brown Thrashers - _at_ 44 days
• Sub songs
• Usually while at rest

27
HOW SOUND IS MADE

• NO SYRINX
• TURKEY VULTURES, STORKS, OSTRICHES HAVE A
  SYRINX BUT NO MUSCLES TO MOVE IT.
• PASSERINES ARE DIVIDED INTO TWO GROUPS
• OSCINES SUBOSCINES
• DETERMINES BY THE ARRANGEMENT OF VOICE MUSCLES
  THE MORE MUSCLES THE BETTER THE SONG
• ALL NORTH AMERICAN PASSERINES ARE OSCINES EXCEPT
  THE FLYCATCHERS WHICH PRODUCE WHISTLE OR
  FLUTELIKE NOTES

28

• SOUND IS PRODUCED BY MUSCLES OF THE SYRINX IN
  TRACHEA AT THE BOTTOM OF THE WIND PIPE BEFORE IT
  GOES INTO THE LUNGS
• AIR VIBRATES PAST A MEMBRANE AND MUSCLES
  ADJUSTMENTS VARY THE SOUND PITCH
• SOME BIRDS CAN ONLY HISS GRUNT OR BOOM

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THE BREEDING CYCLETERRITORY, COURTSHIP, NEST
EGGS

• ADAPTIVE SIGNIFICANCE
• TERRITORY
• BEGINNING OF BREEDING CYCLE
• PAIR BONDS COURTSHIP
• THE NEST
• EGGS
• INCUBATION

31
COMMON FEATURES OF AVIAN REPRODUCTION

• EGGS LAID IN SAFE PLACE
• ENOUGH FOOD IS AVAILABLE FOR THE YOUNG

32
BREEDING AGE IS SUBJECT TO THE ENVIRONMENT

• MOST SMALL BIRDS BREED THE FOLLOWING SPRING
• OR _at_ 10 MONTHS OLD
• REDWING BLACKBIRDS FEMALES BREED FIRST SPRING
  MALES SECOND SPRING
• OLDER MALES ARE BETTER ABLE TO HOLD A SUITABLE
  TERRITORY
• WHEN THE FEEDING TECHNIQUES TAKE PRACTICE SKILL
• MAY WAIT A FEW YEARS BEFORE BREEDING
• BIRDS TOO YOUNG TO BREED USUALLY HAVE DIFFERENT
  PLUMAGE FROM BREEDING ADULTS

33
THE BREEDING CYCLE

• TIMED TO TAKE PLACE WHEN THE MAXIMUM AMOUNT OF
  FOOD IS AVAILABLE
• AMERICAN GOLDFINCH BREEDS LATE SUMMER FOR THISTLE
  SEEDS
• AUSTRALIAN OUTBACK BREEDING TAKES PLACE AFTER
  RAINFALL
• BIRDS USUALLY DONT BREED WHERE THEY WINTER

34
FEMALES ARRIVE

• ARRIVE WHEN THERE IS ENOUGH FOOD AVAILABLE
• MALES USUALLY ARRIVE TO BREEDING AREA FIRST
• BEGIN SINGING DISPLAYS
• START TO DEFEND A TERRITORY
• SOMETIME THERE IS A SEVERAL WEEK DELAY BETWEEN
  THE ARRIVAL OF FEMALES AND MALES
• WHEN TERRITORIES ARE ALREADY SET UP

35
SOME ARRIVE TOGETHER

• SOME ARRIVE TOGETHER
• DUCKS GEESE BREEDING SEASON IS VERY SHORT
• BREEDING ALWAYS(?) OCCURS IN AREA OF FEMALE'S
  BIRTH
• IS SHE MORE FAMILIAR WITH THE AREA?
• IS THERE A BETTER CHANCE OF SUCCESS?

36
BREEDING AGES

• Some birds wait longer to gain the personal
  experience end up producing more young than
  individuals breeding sooner
• Common terns wait until their third year
• Herring gulls wait four years
• Bald eagles 3 5 years
• Wandering albatrosses never breed younger than 9
  years and often not until they are eleven
• In Australian deserts the opposite is true
• Some finches parakeets can breed at 2 months
  when the rains come

37
TERRITORY, COURTSHIP, NESTS EGGS

• REPRODUCTIVE STRATEGIES
• EACH SPECIES FOLLOWS A FAIRLY FIXED PLAN
• MOST EFFICIENT FOR THAT SPECIES IN THEIR
  PARTICULAR ENVIRONMENT
• THE BIOLOGICAL IMPERATIVE
• RAISE AS MANY NEW BIRDS AS CAN BE SUCCESSFULLY
  RAISED
• BIRDS DONT WORRY ABOUT OVERPOPULATION

38
FUNCTION OF TERRITORY

• SPACES BREEDING PAIRS, PROVIDING EACH PAIR WITH A
  PLACE TO MAKE A NEST
• MAKES EGGS HARDER TO FIND BY PREDATORS BY SPACING
  THE NESTS
• DISTRIBUTES EVENLY THE SPECIES IN EACH NEST
  WITHOUT UNNECESSARY COMPETITION
• COLONIES OF NESTING BIRDS THE ADVANTAGES OF
  BEING TOGETHER OUTWEIGHS THE DISADVANTAGES

39
TERRITORY

• NEARLY ALL BIRDS HAVE A SPACE THAT THEY DEFEND
  AGAINST OTHER MEMBERS OF THEIR SPECIES. THESE
  ARE TERRITORIES.
• TERRITORIES MAY BE SQUARE MILES OR ONLY A FEW
  FEET DEPENDING ON THE SPECIES

40
TERRITORY

• A WAY THAT ALL OUT FIGHTING IS AVOIDED IS BY
  INSTITUTIONALIZING CONFLICTS INTO TERRITORIES
• A TERRITPORIAL INDIVIDUAL WILL TYPICALLY DEFEND A
  SPECIFIC AREA PARTICULARLY AGAINST INTRUSION OF
  CONSPECIFICS
• CONSPECIFICS ARE INDIVIDUALS THAT AN INDIVIDUAL
  IS MOST DIRECTLY IN COMPETITION
• TERRITIORIES THAT ARE NOT DEFENDED ARE CALLED
  HOME RANGES

41
TERRITORIES MAY BE PERMANENT OR TEMPORARY,
DEFENDED BY ONE INDIVIDUAL OR MANY AND MAY BE
ESTABLISHED TO GUARD SPACE, FOOD, MATES,
ETC. TERRITORIES ARE MORE LIKELY TO WIN FIGHTS
AGAINST TRESPASSERS HAS MORE TO LOSE WILLING
TO RISK MORE TO WIN MAY BE OLDER MORE EXPERIENCED
FIGHTER TERRITORIALITY REPRESENTS AN UNEVEN
PARTITIONING OF RESOURCES THAT CAN HAVE A
MINIMIZING EFFECT ON THE ECOSYSTEMS CARRYING
CAPACITY FOR THAT BIRD.
42
TERRITORY
Food determines the size of territory Golden
eagle 75 square miles Small songbirds
sometimes less than ½ acre Territories follow
shapes of the land Circles and ovals are easier
to defend Must have suitable water
43
AGONISTIC BEHAVIORS

• Aggressive behavior between conspecifics usually
  involves fighting over a limiting resource such
  as food water, space or mates.
• Depending on scarcity of resource fighting can
  range from fighting to the death to much safer
  ritualistic behavior
• Birds risk injury or death whenever they engage
  in aggressive behavior
• Birds often avoid fighting unless there is a sure
  indication that they will win without incurring
  injury or the resource is worth fighting for.

44
Crest erect nervousness Preening Crest low
during Maintenance activities Musical call
Sidling displaying Crests elevated Displacement
behavior foraging
45

• Single wing flashing
• toward other bird when at right angles
• Double wing flashing
• When facing
• Normal tail raising
• Species identification
• Aggressive tail raising with motives to attack or
  flee

• Flight intention
• Conflict fight or flee
• Mutual upward display
• Fight flee in balance
• One flees when drive to flee exceeds drive to
  fight

• Threat display
• Appeasement display
• Head retracted, wing flutter
• Freezing
• Aggression submission

46
0 - 30 degrees foraging, drinking, courting 30
90 degrees various stages of aggressive
encounters - fighting
47
DISPALCEMENT
RELEASERS
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Birds often have sophisticated rituals in which
they attempt to bluff their opponent into backing
down, they usually have a good sense of when to
retreat as good losers from a lost cause Rarely
do birds actually seriously harm the other
defending territory
50
COURTSHIP DISPLAYS
51
COURTSHIP ESTABLISHING A BOND

• In many cases potential partners must go through
  a complex courtship interaction unique to the
  species before mating
• Fixed action Patterns triggered by some action
  of the other partner and initiating in turn the
  next required behavior.
• This assures each animal the others intent (not
  a threat) and that the others species, gender,
  and physiological condition are all correct.

52

• Male may treat female as intruder initially esp.
  if plumage is similar
• Indicates by behavior she is not a male
• Some displays both sexes take part Western
  grebes, Sand- hill Cranes, Whooping Cranes

53

• Feeding female
• Female give begging calls of young adopts a
  begging posture
• Male feeds female on nest
• Brightly colored passerine males do little
  incubation
• Males defend territory watch for predators, some
  bring food to female
• Usually both parents feed hatchlings

54

• MALE BRINGS STICKS
• MALE PRESENTS STICK
• FEMALE ARRANGES STICKS

55
ADULT COURTSHIP BEHAVIOR - BILL CLASPING
56

• GREETING CEREMONY
• ONE MATE ARRIVES
• MATE SOUNDS WITH NECK ERECT
• USUALLY RAISE CREST PLUMES ABD FEATHERS ON NECK

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MATING STRATEGIES

• Refers to how birds pair up to mate
• promiscuous systems-
• One parent does not participate at all in the
  raising of the offspring low likelihood of
  subsequent with same individual
• Monogamous Systems
• two parents share raising of offspring high
  likelihood of mating with an individual
• Most monogamous birds remain only together for
  one season although they may nest following years
  because both have returned to the same territory.
  
• Loyalty is to territory not the mate
• Life spans of individual birds usually not long
  enough to give advantage to having single
  permanent mate
• Ducks geese, raptors, many seabirds that live
  longer may mate for life.
• They are usually more successful at raising young
  after they have 1 years experience
• Polygamous high likelihood of subsequent mating
  with more than one individual

59

• Courtship can also involve some degree of
  assessment of one individual by the other or its
  territory.
• That they will increase the likelihood of
  successfully producing viable offspring, have the
  best genes or behaviors.

60
POLYGAMOUS STRATEGIES

• Polygyny one male mates with several females
• Female can raise young without the aid of a mate
  when there is no advantage to doing so
• Redwing blackbird male may have four mates
• Marsh hawk
• Meadow larks
• Swamp sparrow
• Yellow-headed blackbird
• Polyandry one female mates with several males
• Young feed themselves from the time they hatch
• Common only in a few tropical families with a
  long breeding season
• Phalaropes
• females more brightly colored than males
• Pursue males
• Males build nest
• Males hatch eggs
• Males care for chicks
• Sanderlings
• One nest incubated by male - One nest incubated
  by female

61
PARENTAL INVESTMENT

• Birds that are destined to invest a lot of time
  energy into parenting would prefer to mate with
  individuals who bring more to the mating than
  less
• Typically the gender that invests the most in the
  offspring is the female.
• Sexual selection is the means by which gender
  (typically males) either compete directly over a
  females or compete for a females favorable
  attention these battles in turn select for
  secondary sexual characteristics that aid in the
  fighting of battles over females or the
  attracting of females.
• Some species both parents invest heavily in the
  raising of offspring sexual selection impacts
  both genders.

62
NESTS

• To hold and shelter eggs until they hatch
• To protect chicks until they are ready to leave
  the nest
• Rookeries
• Every species builds a distinctive nest
• Some birds are flexible about the nests location
• Small birds try to conceal their nests
• Nests are easiest to locate during construction
• Some birds have no nest at all
• Whip-poor-will will nest on forest floor
• Emperor penguins
• Minimal nests - east tern scrapes together a few
  pebbles

63
NEST MATERIALS

• Northern Parula Warbler - will only nest in
  Spanish moss in south/ lichens in the north
• Many use sticks, grasses, plant fibers
• Larger birds use mostly sticks
• Hawks and owls use old crow nests
• Meadowlarks build roofs over nests
• Barn swallows use mud and saliva
• Robins line nest with mud
• Some nests are lined with feather down
• Hummingbirds us lichens, spider webs and saliva,
  lined with catkins
• Great Crested Flycatcher uses snake skin or
  pieces of plastic.
• Male Doves bring females nesting material

64
NEST LOCATION

• Usually chosen by female
• Male may lead female to a suitable location
• Cedar Waxwings seem to choose site jointly
• Protection
• Difficult to reach by predators tip of branch
• Holes
• Woodpeckers excavate holes
• Nuthatches, titmice , chickadees dig holes
• Holes are extremely safe
• Weather predator protection
• Young safest in holes
• Young leave later due to safety

65
NEST CLASSIFICATION
66

Stage I Nests

• Ground nests nests without structure
• Simple depressions with or without lining
• Cryptic coloration or inaccessible

67
CAVITY NESTS
STAGE I NESTS
Caves, crevices burrows, holes in trees, bird
boxes with or without lining
68
STAGE II NESTS

• Platform nests nests elevated, without
  structure, consisting of loosely assembled
  materials with a shallow depression for eggs

69
STICK PLATFORM NESTS STAGE II
STAGE II NESTS
70
CUPPED NESTS
71
CUPPED NESTS READAPTED TO OTHER SITUATIONS

• Adherent Cupped Nests
• Sides are attached by adhesive substance to a
  vertical surface

72
CUPPED GROUND NESTS
STAGE III

• Nests on the ground.
• The sides may or may not be extended upward
  arched over the top, making a domed structure

73
STAGE III NESTS
PENDULOUS nests suspended from the rims sides
rather flexible extremely deep cupped with
lower part swinging freely

• SUSPENDED CUPPED NESTS nests not supported from
  below but from the rims or sides or both
• PENSILE nests suspended from the rims sides,
  rather stiff

74
CAVITY NESTS

• Cupped nests in cavities
• Holes,
• Bird Boxes, etc.
• In preformed or natural cavities
• In cavities excavated by occupant birds

75
FALSE NESTS

• Cock Nests Or Dummy Nests
• Carolina Wren
• Refuge Nests
• Roost or shelter made anytime, particularly
  fall
• DUMP NESTS

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NEST EVOLUTION
77
WEAVER FINCHES
78
GROUP NESTS

• Smooth- billed Anis up to twenty eggs in a large
  nest
• Sociable weaver African Weaver Finch, tens to
  hundreds of pairs of nests
• Communal structure helps maintain a constant
  temperature in nests

79
MEGAPODES

• Australia Southeast Asia
• Males spend entire year building nest of sand,
  volcanic ash, rotting vegetation
• Males adjust amount of composting material to
  incubate eggs
• Megapodes digs way out of nest , goes off to live
  on its own.
• Hatch fully feathered and capable of flight

80
BROOD PATCH
81
EGGS
82
EGG SHAPES
83
EGG FORMATION
84
EMBRYO DEVELOPMENT
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• Yolk albumen diminish, with the yolk providing
  energy the albumen providing protein and water
• Energy in the egg is used by the embryo for
  growth maintenance
• During incubation (of a chicken egg)
• First day
• 16 hours - first sign of resemblance to a chick
  embryo
• 18 hours - appearance of alimentary canal
• 20 hours - appearance of vertebral column
• 21 hours - beginning of nervous system
• 22 hours - beginning of head
• 24 hours - beginning of eye
• Second day
• 25 hours - beginning of heart
• 35 hours - beginning of ear
• 42 hours - heart beats
• Third day
• 60 hours (shown to the right) - beginning of nose
  
• 62 hours - beginning of legs

EGG DEVELOPMEMT

• Fourth day - beginning of tongue
• Fifth day - formation of reproductive organs and
  differentiation of sex
• Sixth day - beginning of beak
• Eighth day - beginning of feathers
• Tenth day - beginning of hardening of beak
• Thirteenth day - appearance of scales and claws
• Fourteenth day - embryo gets into position
  suitable for breaking shell
• Sixteenth day - scales, claws and beak becoming
  firm and horny
• Seventeenth day - beak turns toward air cell
• Nineteenth day - yolk sac begins to enter body
  cavity
• Twentieth day - yolk sac completely drawn into
  body cavity embryo occupies practically all the
  space within the egg except the air cell
• Twenty-first day - hatching of chick

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THE BREEDING CYCLE - II

• HATCHING
• GROWTH DEVELOPMENT
• LEARNING
• NEST HELPERS
• PARASITISM

90
Altricial
Precocial
Nidicolous nest dwelling
- nidifugous
91
PARENTAL CARE
92
PARENTAL CARE

• Division Of Labor
• Hatching
• Recognition Of Young
• Disposing Of Egg Shells
• Disposing Of Excrement
• Brooding
• Feeding
• Food
• Degree Of Dependence
• Period
• Mechanics
• Distribution
• Frequency
• Water Grit
• Defensive Behavior
• Transportation
• Teaching/Urging

93
DIVISION OF LABOR

• MALES OFTEN ACTIVE IN FEEDING
• MAY OR MAY NOT SHARE BROODING
• SOMETIMES BRTING FOOD BEFORE HATCHING
• MALE MAY FEED OLDER NESTLINGS IN CASE OF TWO
  BROODS
• ROLES MAY VARY IN SPECIES
• AVIAN NURSEURIES
• SOME TERNS, OTHERS, GUARD PROTECT ALL YOUNG
  CRECHE
• ANIS REARED COMMUNALLY IN COMMON NEST SHARING
  INCUBATION, BROODING, FEEDING, OLDER YOUNG ASSIST
  SCRUB JAY

94
HATCHING

• AWARE WHEN EGGS BECOME PIPPED
• EGG TURNING CEASES
• MAY REMOVE PIECES OF CRACKED EGGSHELL OR DUMP
  HATCHLING OUT OF PART OF SHELLONCE SHELL IS
  COMPLETELY OPEN
• MOST PARENTS PASSIVE DURING HATCHING

95
RECOGNITION OF YOUNG

• COLONIAL SEABIRDS CAN DISCRIMINATE THEIR OWN
  YOUNG FROM HUNDREDS
• REJECT OTHER OFFSPRING
• OTHER BIRDS DO NOT NEED TO DO MORE THAN FEED
  WHATEVER ASKS TO BE FED IN THE NEST
• LACK OF DISCRIMINATION LEADS TO BROOD OR NEST
  PARASITISM

96
DISPOSING OF EGG SHELLS

• USELESS CLUTTER AFTER HATCHING
• POTENMTIAL HAZARD TO NESTLIONG
• CARRIED AWAY FROM NEST OR EATEN
• PRECOCIAL BIRDS LEAVE EGGS AND NEST
• SOME LEAVE EGGSHELLS IN NEST GOSHAWK CUCKOOS

97
DISPOSING OF EXCREMENT

• MANY HOLE NESTERS WALLOW IN EXCREMENT WITH NO
  NEGATIVE EFFECT
• MOST NON- PASSERINES LEARN EARLY TO DEFECATE OVER
  EDGE OF NEST OR NEST HOLE
• PASSERINES SOME NON-PASSERINE YOUNG PRODUCE
  FECAL SACS THAT ARE REMOVE FROM NEST SITE

98
DISPOSING OF EXCREMENT

• SOME YOUNG PRESENT FECAL SAC TO PARENT
• DEPOSIT SAC AT EDGE OF NEST

• EARLY SACS MAY BE EATEN, LATER CARRIED OFF
• NEST SANITATION MAY WANE OVER TIME

99
DISPOSING OF EXCREMENT

• EDGE OF NEST MAY BE WHITISH-
• COATED WITH LIME TOWARD END OF
• NEST USE

100
BROODING

• KEEP NESTLING NEXT TO BROOD BATCH
• MAINTAINS ADEQUATE TEMPERATURE DOE DEVELOPING
  NESTLING
• BOODING NOT CONSTANT
• MORE DANGER OF OVERHEATING

101

• BROODING RHYTHM CHANGES
• PLUMAGES HELP RETAIN HEAT
• EARLY ON PARENT CONCEAL NEST WITH BODY
• BROODING MAY LENGHTEN IN BAD WEATHER
• COVERED MORE IN THE NIGHT THAN DAY

102

• PRECOCIAL (NIDIFUGOUS) YOUNG SOON ABLE TO
  FEED THEMSELVES
• BEGIN TO TASTE THINGS ALMOST IMMEDIATELY
• SOME PRELIMINARY COACHING MAY BE NEEDED FOR YOUNG
  TO FEED

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104
FEEDING

• PARENTS LAY FOOD ITEMS NEAR YOUNG (LOONS, GREBES,
  CRANES)
• YOUNG MAY NOT BE ABLE TO CATCH FOOD FOR UP TO 6
  WEEKS

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FEEDING

• ALTRICIAL (NIDICOLOUS) YOUNG
• GULLS, TERNS, COLONIAL NESTERS MAY REMAIN
  INCAPABLE OF PROCURING FOOD ON THE OWN UNTIL
  FLEDGED
• MAY BE FEED WITHIN A FEW HOURS OF HATCHING

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FEEDING

• BAD WEATHER MAY DELAY MEALS
• USUALY YOUNG CAN GO A DAY OR TWO WITHOUT EATING
  
• YOUNG TUBE NOSES CAN GO WEEKS WITHOUT FOOD ON FAT
  RESERVES

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FEEDING PERIODS

• PARENTAL FEEDING RANGES FOR ABOUT 4 WEEKS TO 8
  MONTHS OR MORE (ALBATROSSES)
• HALF OR MORE OF FEEDING PERIOD IS DONE OUTSIDE
  OF NEST
• MAY EVOKE BEGGING RESPONSE

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FEEDING PERIODS

• WEANING PROCESS GRADUAL WITH PARENTS BRINGING
  FOOD LESS FREQUENTLY
• PROMOTES AGGRESSIVENESS
• FUELS DRIVE TO FIND OWN FOOD
• PARENT- YOUNG ENCOUNTERS AFTER YOUNG SELF
  FEEDING

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MECHANICS OF FEEDING

• FEEDING RATHER MECHANICAL
• NO EMOTION
• DEPENDENT ON RELEASER SIGNALS
• SPOTS
• OPEN GAPES

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• MOUTH PATTERNS

MECHANICS OF FEEDING

• GAPE COLOR
• COLOR MOUTH FLANGES

• BEGGING CALL
• USUALLY WILL GIVE FOOD TO ANYTHINGN THAT GAPES
  CHEEPS

• IF NOTHING GAPES OR CHEEPS PARENT MAY EAT FOOD

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MORE MECHANICS

• FOOD TRANFER
• PARENTS MAY DELIVER ENTIRE CARCASS
• PARENTS MAY TEAR OFF MANGEABLE PARTS

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MORE MECHANICS

• SOME REGURGITATE FOOD AT NEST
• INTO NEST OR ON GROUND
• INTO MOUTH OF NESTLING (HUMMERS PUMP FOOD INTO
  NESTLING)
• BEAK TO BEAK REGURGITATION

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MECHANICS

• YOUNG MAY REACH INTO MOUTH OR THROAT OF PARENT
  (SEABIRDS, SOME WADING BIRDS)
• CONSISTENCY OF FOOD BECOMES COARSER AS YOUNG AGE

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FOOD DISTRIBUTION

• PARENTS USUALLY FEED THE MOST AGGRESSIVE NESTLING
• NESTLING WILL FEED UNTIL IT CAN NO LONGER SWALLOW
  ANY MORE FOOD
• ONCE FULL BEGGING CEASES
• SIBLINGS SRE FED IN TURN

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FOOD DISTRIBUTION

• WHEN RESPONSES EQUAL PARENT TESTS TO SEE
  SWALLOWING REACTION
• STAGGERED HATCHING OLDEST BIRD FED FIRST
• YOUNGEST SIBLINGS WAIT UNTIL OTHERS ARE SATED

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FREQUENCY OF FEEDING

• FEEDING USUALLY INCREASES WITH GROWTH
• DROPS OFF AS WEANING PROGRESSES
• AT PEAK 20 30 MINUTES DURING DAY
• MANY SEABIRD ACCUSTOMED TO BEING FED ONLY ONCE
  PER DAY

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WATER GRIT

• FOOD CONTAINS WATER NESTLING NEED
• FEW BIRDS BRING ACTUAL WATER YOUNG
• SAND GROUSE
• EURASIAN WHITE STORKS
• GRIT MAY BE PROVIDED

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DEFENSIVE BEHAVIOR

• DEFEND NEST AGAINST PREDATORS
• FROM PASSIVITY
• COVERING NEST
• REMAINING SILENT MOTIONLESS
• TO SAVAGE AGGRESSION
• GOSHAWKS
• SOME OWLS
• ALARM CALLS
• (SCATTER COVER, REMAIN STILL)

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• DISTRACTION
• RAISING FEATHERS, SCREAMING, HISSING
• DIVE-BOMBING
• MAKING THREAT GESTURES WITHOUT ATTACK
• COLONIES ACT IN CONCERT TO THREAT

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TRANSPORTATION OF YOUNG

• RIDING ON BACK OR UNDER WING OF PARENT, LOONS,
  GREBES, COOTS, SWANS, DUCKS
• PICKING UP YOUNG
• IN BILL RAILS
• LAST DITCH RESCUE
• EFFORT

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PARENTAL TEACHING URGING

• PRECOCIAL CHICKS INTRODUCED TO FOOD
• OTHER SKILLS APPEAR TO BE INNATE
• TRIAL ERROR REFINES SKILLS
• NOT TRANSFERRED INTELLECTUALLY

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SIBLING RIVALRY
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LEARNING

• IMPRINTING
• HABITUATION
• TRIAL ERROR
• CONDITIONING
• INSIGHT
• LEARNING
• INSTINCT
• FIXED ACTION PATTERNS
• RELEASERS

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INSIGHT
RAVENS RECOGNIZE BOX WITH FOOD REWARD
SOLVING SIMPLE PROBLEMS
125
HABITUATION REPEATED STIMULATION NO REWARD OR
PUNISHMENT
CONDITIONING LEARNING BY ASSOCIATION BIRD FEEDER
FOOD
TRIAL ERROR WHAT IS FOOD WHAT IS NOT UNPLEASENT
EXPERIENCES
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NEST HELPERS

• ANIS REARED COMMUNALLY IN
• COMMON NEST SHARING,
• INCUBATION, BROODING, FEEDING,
• OLDER YOUNG ASSIST
• SCRUB JAYS, ACORN WOODPECKERS

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128
NEST PARASITISM
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130
HOST SPECIES
PARASITIC SIBLING
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MIGRATION ORIGINS CONDITIONS FLIGHT
PATHS DISTRIBUTION EXTREMES FACTORS RANGES ATTR
ACTING CARING FOR BIRDS FEEDING WATERING
NESTING PLANTING FIRST AID BIRDWATCHING FIELD
GUIDES OPTICS HOW TO ETC.
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