5%20Designing%20the%20research%20instrument

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5 Designing the research instrument
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5 Designing the research instrument

• It is essential that the research
• instrument to be employed in a
• Focus Assessment Study is precisely
• related to the research aims and
• objectives. This in turn relates to the
• output (report) of the project.

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Designing the research instrument
Aim to identify HIV risk behaviour and factors
affecting it amongst a particular group of drug
users Research instrument designed to discover
what risks are being taken and the circumstances
under which they occur Final report details of
risk behaviours and why they occur.
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Qualitative research instruments

• designed to facilitate the examination of
• the interviewee's world from their point of
• view
• give interviewee the opportunity to answer
• a question or discuss a theme in depth,
• and for the interviewer to ask follow-up
• questions

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Qualitative research instruments
too structured does not allow interviewees to put
forward their own point of view and
experiences too unstructured may result in too
many data that are irrelevant to the study
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Avoid
Complex and technical language Multiple
questions 'What do you feel about the risks of
sharing syringes now as opposed to five years
ago? Leading questions 'Why is there so much
prostitution around here?' Should be 'Is
there any prostitution in this area?' or 'Tell me
about prostitution around here.'
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Semi-structured questionnaire
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Interview themes
The list of themes of topics to be covered in a
themed interview should be as short as possible
whilst incorporating all the issues required by
the aims and objectives of the study. The aim
of a themed interview is to elicit in-depth
responses on each theme, and interviewees should
not be interrupted because the list is too long
and the interviewer wants to move onto the next
theme.
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Interview themes
  Themes may not be addressed in the order in
which they are laid out in the research
instrument. A new theme is introduced in a
simple way, such as 'Let's talk about ..... now'
or 'Can I ask you about ..... now?' Some
themes may not need an introduction as the
interviewee may spontaneously discuss them.
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Focus group themes
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Observational guide

• Setting
• People
• Activities
• Signs
• Acts
• Events
• Time
• Goals
• Connections 
•  

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Pilot the research instrument to

• identify any problems such as the wording of
• questions, the length of the interview, and
  whether
• the research instrument has been compiled in a
• logical fashion
• test the interviewers' / focus group
  moderators
• ability to administer the research instrument
  and
• indicate whether further training is required.
  

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6 Data collection
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Setting

• Where will you conduct interviews or
• focus groups?
• How will you arrange the furniture?
• Will you be able to ensure privacy?

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Interviewing

• Introduction
• time
• thanks
• refreshments
• purpose
• confidentiality
• anonymity
• agreement for tape recording /
• purpose of note-taker

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Essential skills for interviewers

• Trained to conduct interviews
• Role play
• Reading transcribed interviews
• Listening to / watching interview tapes
• Watching more experienced interviewers at work
•  

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Essential skills for interviewers

• An understanding of the relevant
• research and drug-related issues
• How interviews fit into the whole project
• Basic concepts related to drug use, drug
  services, legal issues
•  

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Essential skills for interviewers

• Good communication and rapport
• Show a genuine interest in interviewees and their
  responses
• Image management
• Knowledge of local slang
•  
•  

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Essential skills for interviewers

• Non-judgmental attitude
• Disapproval / approval of responses
•  
•  

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Essential skills for interviewers

• Ability to observe verbal and non-verbal cues
• What do you do when the interviewee is
• bored?
• tired?
• angry?
• upset?
• embarrassed?
•  

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Essential skills for interviewers

• 6 Ability to follow up responses with a
• view to exploring emerging issues
• whilst adhering to the research instrument
• Balance between encouraging the interviewee to
  talk and discouraging them from giving
  information unrelated to the aims of the study.
•  

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Essential skills for interviewers

• 6 Ability to follow up responses with a
• view to exploring emerging issues
• whilst adhering to the research instrument
• Interrupt to move to next question / theme?
• Make connections / recognise contradictions.
• Use non-directive probes.
•  

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Examples of non-directive probes
'Tell me more about...' 'Take me through
exactly what happens when you...' 'Can you give
me an example of?' 'Did I understand you
correctly when you said...?' 'Can you explain a
bit more what you mean by...?' 'Why do you think
that is the case?' 'Do you think everyone thinks
that?'  
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Essential skills for interviewers

• Ability to adapt to the situation
• What do you do if.
• an interviewee is under the influence of drugs?
• other people come within earshot of the
  interview?

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Essential skills for interviewers
1 Trained to conduct interviews 2 An
understanding of the relevant research and drug-
related issues 3 Good communication and
rapport 4 Non-judgmental attitude 5 Ability to
observe verbal and non-verbal cues 6 Ability to
follow up responses with a view to exploring
emerging issues whilst adhering to the research
instrument 7 Ability to adapt to the
situation
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Moderating focus groups
The crucial difference between a focus group and
an interview is that group interaction reduces
the data collector's control of the process the
role of a moderator is not to lead like an
interviewer, but to guide.
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Moderating focus groups

• Greet and thank participants
• Refreshments
• Introduction
• Purpose
• Confidentiality
• Anonymity
• Agreement for tape recording /
• purpose of note-taker
• Ground rules

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Moderating focus groups
The focus group moderator's tasks are to
encourage divergent thought, encourage
participants to talk to each other, and to make
the experience energetic and informal.
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Moderating focus groups
To maximise contributions to the discussion,
every participant has to feel that their opinion
matters. It is possible that there will be one
or two participants who try and dominate the
discussion and one or two who need encouragement
to contribute.
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How to encourage non-contributors
'If you have a different opinion from those
you've heard so far, I want to hear it, because
you'll be representing a sizeable proportion of
people out there who just did not happen to be in
this focus group.'   'Let's hear a different
perspective on this from someone else.'   'I
haven't heard from you yet.'
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If the discussion falters
Ask participants to complete sentences such as
'The most dangerous thing about drug use is ...',
'The best way to prevent HIV transmission is
...', 'I would advise a young person to ...'
Leave the room for a few minutes in order to
encourage participants to talk amongst
themselves.   Ask participants what they are not
saying.
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At the end of thefocus group

• Summarise main points, ask if
• participants agree.
• Ask participants how they experienced
• the session and if they have any
• questions.
• Thank participants and end the session.
• Be the last to leave the room.

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Immediately after the focus group

• Moderator and note-taker make notes / tape
  record
• a description of their impressions of the
  interaction
• between participants
• incidents that hindered or facilitated the
  discussion
• the general atmosphere of the group
• the extent to which they think the participants
  'opened
• up.
• Review note-takers notes.

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Focus groupssupplementary questionnaire
To collect structured / sensitive data (age,
gender, educational achievements, drug
use). Administer before or after focus group?
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Recording responses from interviews and focus
groups

• The interviewer or focus group moderator
• takes notes of responses and writes them
• up more fully after the session?
•  
• A note-taker attends the interview or focus
• group?
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• The interview or focus group is tape
• recorded?

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Interviewer or focus group moderator takes notes
of responses and writes them up more fully after
the session

• loss of eye contact
• non-verbal cues missed
• small cues missed
• informant is distracted
• signals about which responses are important and
• which are not
• informant may try to dictate what is written
  down
• informant inhibited
• reliant on memory
•  

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Use of a note-taker
 
Avoids some of disadvantages of having the
interviewer or moderator taking notes, but the
note-taker will not be able to write down every
word.
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Tape recording
 

• Use a note-taker to record non-verbal responses
  and
• overall impressions of the session
• Explain tape recorder to interviewees / focus
  group
• participants stress confidentiality, access
  to the tape
• limited, destroyed after transcription
• Use 2 tape recorders
• Spare batteries
• Good quality machine
• Site of machine

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Transcribing tape recordings
Allocate sufficient human and financial
resources 1 hour tape up to 6 hours to
transcribe fully up to 20 A4 sheets of paper in
size 12 font
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Transcribing tape recordings
How much should be transcribed?
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Transcribing tape recordings of focus groups

• Include non-verbal cues noted by the note-taker
• Try and distinguish between voices
• Indicate speakers gender in mixed groups
• Add impressions from note-taker and moderator

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Researchers fieldnotes
Useful additional data source Can include
comments on own feelings during interviews /
focus groups potentially useful observations
about, for example, the settings in which
data collection took place.
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Monitor data collection

• Data collectors meet regularly with rest of
  research team to discuss
• experiences in the field
• problems with research instrument
• problems with access

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Data storage

• systematic
• secure