Joey Fong Slides:212

1
SNP and Microsatellites (STR) in DNA
Raymond Fung (Slides24-32 )
Joey Fong (Slides2-12 )
Tara Gonzalez (Slides13-23)
2
Group Responsibilities

• Joey Fong- Introduction Slides What led
  scientists to this new scientific discovery or
  technique? Short definition as to what SNP and
  Microsatellites are How scientists tested their
  work the outcome of their research.
• Tara Gonzalez- Put together the powerpoint
  Middle Slides Explanation of the science (SNP
  STR) How it works How it applies to crime scene
  and forensic science. (Real Life Stories and
  examples)
• Raymond Fung- Conclusion SlidesWhat are the
  advantages/disadvantages of this new
  discovery/technique as it relates to crime lab
  investigations the advantages and disadvantages
  of this new discovery/techniqe as it relates to
  courtroom proceedings questions raised by this
  discover/technique (new questions, new cases
  brought up.)

• NOTE CITATIONS On almost all of the slides a lot
  of sources were used and the full citation
  couldnt fit on the slides. Instead the number of
  the citation (found in the bilbliography) is
  noted in this format ( number, number etc.)

3
What Are They?

• Single-nucleotide polymorphism SNP is a DNA
  sequence occurring when a single nucleotide
  (A,T,C, or G) in the genome differs between
  members of a species. Almost all common SNPs have
  only two alleles

• "SNPs Variations on a Theme." National Center
  for Biotechnology Information. Web. 09 Nov. 2009.
  lthttp//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/About/primer/snps.htm
  lgt.
• "Microsatellite Marker Method - Genomics Course."
  Biology _at_ Davidson. Web. 09 Nov. 2009.
  lthttp//www.bio.davidson.edu/COURSES/genomics/meth
  od/microsatellite.htmlgt.

4

• SNP." Web. 09 Nov. 2009. lthttp//cmbi.bjmu.edu.cn/
  cmbidata/snp/significance/pharmacy.htmgt.

5
What Are They?

• Microsatellites are repetitive stretches of short
  sequences of DNA used as genetic markers to track
  inheritance in families. Also known as Short
  Tandem Repeat (STR)

• "Microsatellite Marker Method - Genomics Course."
  Biology _at_ Davidson. Web. 09 Nov. 2009.
  lthttp//www.bio.davidson.edu/COURSES/genomics/meth
  od/microsatellite.htmlgt.

6
"Microsatellite Marker Method - Genomics Course."
Biology _at_ Davidson. Web. 09 Nov. 2009.
lthttp//www.bio.davidson.edu/COURSES/genomics/meth
od/microsatellite.htmlgt.
7
Significance?

• SNPs can be used in forensic science is to
  determine whether an illness is genetic or not.
• SNPs also have a special role in drug discovery
  strengthen and individuals response to
  pharmaceutical agents

• "SNPs Variations on a Theme." National Center
  for Biotechnology Information. Web. 09 Nov. 2009.
  lthttp//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/About/primer/snps.htm
  lgt

8
SNP

• SNPs are not responsible for a disease state. In
  fact, SNPs are makers for pinpointing a disease
  in a human genome.
• This is because certain diseases are usually
  located near a gene associated with that certain
  diseases.

"SNPs Variations on a Theme." National Center
for Biotechnology Information. Web. 09 Nov. 2009.
lthttp//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/About/primer/snps.htm
lgt.
9
Significance of Microsatellites

• Microsatellites can be enlarged for
  identification. Only a small strand of DNA is
  needed to be enlarged

• "SNPs Variations on a Theme." National Center
  for Biotechnology Information. Web. 09 Nov. 2009.
  lthttp//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/About/primer/snps.htm
  lgt.

10
Limitations

• Microsatellites - As the genetic distance
  increases, the percentage of loci that can be
  successfully amplified to view decreases

"SNPs Variations on a Theme." National Center
for Biotechnology Information. Web. 09 Nov. 2009.
lthttp//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/About/primer/snps.htm
lgt.
11
Limitations

• SNP Finding single nucleotide changes in the
  human genome can be very difficult
• However, in the last 20 years biomedical
  researchers have developed a many techniques to
  make it easier

• "SNPs Variations on a Theme." National Center
  for Biotechnology Information. Web. 09 Nov. 2009.
  lthttp//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/About/primer/snps.htm
  lgt

12
Applications

• SNPs can be used to determine whether a victim
  died from a disease by looking at the human
  genome map and seeing if a disease or diseases
  is/are present
• Microsatellites can be used for identification of
  a suspect or criminal.

• "SNPs Variations on a Theme." National Center
  for Biotechnology Information. Web. 09 Nov. 2009.
  lthttp//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/About/primer/sns.html
  gt.
• "Microsatellite Marker Method - Genomics Course."
  Biology _at_ Davidson. Web. 09 Nov. 2009.
  lthttp//www.bio.davidson.edu/COURSES/genomics/meth
  od/microsatellite.htmlgt.

13
The Science OF SNP and Microsatellites

• HOW DOES DNA TYPING WORK?
• Only .01 of DNA differs from one person to the
  next
• this consists of 3 million bases
• DNA can be generated from blood, bone hair or
  body tissues/products
• Once at the crime scene the evidence must be
  collected, the DNA extracted and than the DNA is
  analyzed for the presence of DNA Region markers
• Scientists find these markers by delegating
  probes or small pieces of DNA that will seek out
  and bind to a complementary DNA sequence.
• A series of probes bound to a DNA creates a
  unique pattern for each individual
• These DNA profiles are compared to determine
  where the suspects DNA profile matches the
  profile found at the crime scene
• Range that indicates certainty 5-13

( 17,16,9)
14
The Science OF SNP and Microsatellites

• DNA polymorphisms are variations in the
  nucleotide sequence of DNA
• Used as genetic markers especially along
  particular chromosomal regions
• Ie. Signposts along a road
• Gene markers help display the sequence of repeDNA
  polymorphisms are variations in the nucleotide
  sequence of DNA
• Used as genetic markers especially along
  particular chromosomal regions
• Ie. Signposts along a road

( 17,16,8,9 )
15
Microsatellites

• Microsatellite Analysis
• Microsatellite Analysis is more well known as STR
  Analysis or Short Tandem Repeat
• The most important fact is its high mutation
  rate of 10-2 and 10-5 per gamete so they vary
  greatly in copy number between individuals
• The analysis starts with the the IDing of regions
  of non-coding DNA containing short repeats
• Microsatellites can be
• Simple- Uninterrupted array of homologous repeat
  motifs
• Compound- repeat motif changes- two or more
  adjacent simple repeats
• Complex-array is interrupted or contains several
  repeats of variable unit length
• STR-Short Tandem Repeat is known to be the most
  successful and commonly used DNA profiling
  procedure
• STRs are locations, also called LOCIS, on the
  chromosome that contain short sequence elements
  that repeat themselves throughout the DNA
• They are found throughout the human genome which
  is why they are so useful
• The repeating sequences consist of 3-7 bases
• the entire strand is less than 450 bases long
• 2-5bp in length

( 17,16, 15, 8)
16
Microsatellites

• Because they are so small they are less likely to
  degrade
• so the DNA evidence can be collected from bodies
  or stains that have undergone a large amount of
  decomposition
• TH01 is a common used STR which contains the
  repeating sequence A-A-T-G
• There are four bases for DNA (A- Adenine, C-
  Cytosine, G- Guanine and T- Thymine)
• Seven TH01 has been identified in the human
  genome these variants contain 5-11 repeats of
  the pattern A-A-T-G
• When used in a forensic setting the TH01 would be
  extracted
• a copy of STR would be taken out, copied and
  amplified and seperated on an electrophoretic gel
  
• Observe the distance the STR has moved on the
  plate and determine the amount of A-A-T-G repeats
  on the STR
• Every has two STR types for TH01 (in this case)
  one each inherited from each parent

( 17,16,8,15)
17
Microsatellites

• STR analysis is useful when the core repeats is
  defined and the sequences of bases of repeats are
  known
• Probability of Identity is also checked
• the probability that two individuals have the
  same set of STRS
• product of the frequency of occurrence in the
  population
• Greater number of STRS smaller frequency

• Whats so good about STR analysis?
• hundreds of different types of STRs are found in
  genes
• The more STRs one can characterize the less
  likely it is anyone has those STRS
• Concept of multiplexing- a process used to
  extract and amplify a combination of STRs.
• One system used is the STR Blue kit
• provides materials for the amplified and
  detection of three STRS (triplexing)
• commonly used because STRS dont overlap and can
  be clearly seen
• In order to be inputted into CODIS 13 STRs must
  be identified

( 17,16,8,15)
18
SNP

• SNP- Single Nucleotide polymorphisms- regions of
  the genome in which two strains are different by
  a single base pair
• Most genetic variation between individuals
• SNPS are loci where there is a difference in the
  individual base that exists at a certain point on
  a genome
• Most common type of repeated genetic elements
• Occur about every 1000bp in unrelated individuals
  
• Variations identified through SNP Analysis
  usually deal with
• diversity in the population, disease responses,
  individual responses to medicine, individuality
  etc.
• Variations are noted in the untranslated ares of
  the genome
• that occurs in the 5 and 3 regions
• This is within the introns where variations can
  occur without having a huge impact on the DNAs
  function
• these are points that people in the population
  have. One person may have a A-T pair another will
  have a G-C Pair
• More than 90 of human genes have at least one
  SNP

• SNPs can be categorized as
• Bi-, tri- or tetra-alleleic
• Depends on the base that exists at the SNP
  Position
• it can vary between two, three or four types
• Bi- SNPS though are really the only ones detected
  and eventually analyzed

( 17,16,15,11,14)
19
What are the results used for?

• HOW ARE THE RESULTS OF THE DNA ANALYSIS USED?
• The scientific procedure used for the DNA
  Analysis must be
• Robust- able to produce a result
• Sensitive- able to produce a result from a small
  amount of evidence
• Highly discriminating- able to provide a unique
  result that can individualize the evidence
• Accurate- involve as little error as possible

• Identifying Victims in major catastrophes 9/11
• Many Victims were unidentified and only left
  behind bone and tissue fragments
• At the time there was no place to analyze so much
  DNA so panel members were snt out to produce
  forms and kits needed to enable the medical
  examiner to collect DNA
• All DNA samples were collected and recorded into
  a database
• There was around 20,000 pieces of human remains
  from the World Trade Center
• In 2005 though the search ended because a lot of
  the evidence was too small or too damaged to be
  accurately identified
• Only 1585 of the 2792 who died were identified
• Further identifications though have been underway
  since 2007 and the discovery of a new methodology
  of DNA extraction

• SNP and Microsatellite analysis have been applied
  to various crime scenes and situations

( 17,16)
20
What are the results used for?

• MISSING PEOPLE Disappeared Children in Argentina
• People known as the dissapeared were kidnapped
  and murdered in Argentina during the 1970s
• A lot of them were pregnant women whose children
  were taken from them at birth and raised by the
  kidnappers
• Grandparents of the children have been looking
  for them for years
• Professor Mary-Claire King has been running DNA
  tests on the DNA evidence found in hopes of
  reuniting the grandparents with the grandchildren
  they never had the opportunity to meet.

( 17,16)
21
What are the results used for?

• THE DNA SHOAH PROJECT
• Database for individuals who lost family members
  during the Holocaust
• May also serve to reunite families separated
  during the war
• Identify victims who were buried anonymously

22
What are the results used for?

• Super Bowl XXXIV Footballs and 2000 Summer
  Olympic Games
• The NFL uses DNA technology to help keep track of
  all of their footballs
• to keep a record of them, to insure authenticity
  and to prevent sports merchandise fraud
• The footballs are marked with a permanent
  invisible strand of artificial DNA
• the DNA strand is verifiable through the use of a
  laser and DNA comparisons
• For the 2000 Olympic Games a section of human
  genetic code was taken from several Australian
  Athletes (the Olympics took place in Sydney that
  year) to mark all official goods

( 17,16)
23
What are the results used for?

• Son of Louis XVI and Marie Antionette
• Scientists solved one of the so called Greatest
  mysteries of all European history by using DNA
  tests to prove
• Who was the son of the executed French King Louis
  XVI
• That Marie-Antoinette died in prison as a child
• To prove the son scientists removed the presumed
  heart of the child king from his tomb and matched
  it with the DNA samples from his family (both
  living and dead)
• ie. used Maria Antionettes locks of hair

24
DNA evidence

• Most significant advance in criminal
  investigation since fingerprinting has been DNA
  evidence
• Analysis on saliva, blood, semen, skin tissue,
  hair are all reliable evidence to link criminals
  to crimes
• In the past 10 years, DNA evidence has been more
  widely accepted and used by police, prosecutors,
  and courts in the U.S
• DNA evidence is the only method able to be used
  to exonerate suspects who were wrongly accused,
  and also to rule out certain suspects who are not
  related to the crime (6)

25
First use of DNA evidence

• The first reported use of DNA evidence was in a
  non criminal case where a mother-son relationship
  was shown through DNA testing
• The boy was refused entry to the United Kingdom
  because he was lacking proof that he was the son
  of his mother who had the right of settlement in
  the United Kingdom
• In the end, DNA evidence proved that there was a
  high probability of the mother-son relationship
  and the boy was allowed to enter the U.K (6)

26
Cases Related

• In a 1987 case in England, Robert Melias became
  the first person convicted of a crime (rape) on
  the basis of DNA evidence
• In one of the first uses of DNA in a criminal
  case in the United States was in November 1987 at
  the Circuit Court in Orange County, Florida.
• Tommy Lee Andrews was convicted of rape after
  DNA tests matched his DNA from a blood sample
  with that of semen traces found in the rape
  victim (6)

27
Cases Related Cont.

• The multiple murder trials in Virginia of Timothy
  Wilson Spencer were the first cases in the United
  States where the admission of DNA evidence led to
  guilty verdicts resulting in a death penalty.
• The Virginia Supreme Court upheld the murder and
  rape convictions of Spencer, who had been
  convicted on the basis of DNA testing that
  matched his DNA with that of semen found in
  several victims
• All states in the U.S have allowed DNA evidence
  in criminal trials except four states Maine,
  North Dakota, Rhode Island, Utah (6)

28
Importance / Advantages 1

• Both microsatellites and SNPs are useful in
  identifying diseases
• Microsatellites are useful genetic markers they
  serve a role in biomedical diagonosis as markers
  for certain disease conditions.
• Certain microsatellites are related to certain
  medical disorders through genetic relationship.
  (3)

29
Importance / Advantages 2

• Microsatellites are useful markers in detecting
  cancer (1)
• SNPs do not cause disease, but they can help
  determine the chance that someone will develop a
  particular illness such as the Alzheimer's
  disease (5)
• Microsatellites are more importantly used for
  parentage analysis -- relatedness testing in
  criminal work may involve investigating paternity
  in order to establish rape or incest (3)

30
Importance / Advantages 3

• Microsatellites have become a significant marker
  in forensic studies because of its high
  specificity, it is a very high probability of
  finding a match with evidence to the suspect so
  it is very useful
• Microsatellites have many alleles, which is
  highly informative and very useful
• Advantages of using microsatellites and SNPs is
  that it is efficient for large scale studies
  because it is not very expensive (7)

31
Importance / Advantages 4

• The main advantages of SNPs are
• They commonly and evenly-distributed in the
  genome
• Methods of detecting SNPs can be easily
  automated. The easiness of this technique is what
  makes SNPs "high-throughput" markers.
• High-throughput means that large numbers of
  markers can be quickly obtained at a very small
  cost which is very beneficial (4)

32
Disadvantages

• The main disadvantage of SNPs is the small number
  of alleles present and their low variability
• However, the price to obtain large numbers of
  SNPs are fairly cheap amount of data able to be
  collected makes up for the low variability per
  SNP marker (7)

33
Bibliography

• slide 3"SNPs Variations on a Theme." National
  Center for Biotechnology Information. Web. 09
  Nov. 2009. lthttp//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/About/prim
  er/snps.htmlgt."Microsatellite Marker Method -
  Genomics Course." Biology _at_ Davidson. Web. 09
  Nov. 2009. lthttp//www.bio.davidson.edu/COURSES/ge
  nomics/method/microsatellite.htmlgt.
• slide 4SNP." Web. 09 Nov. 2009.
  lthttp//cmbi.bjmu.edu.cn/cmbidata/snp/significance
  /pharmacy.htmgt.
• slide 5"Microsatellite Marker Method - Genomics
  Course." Biology _at_ Davidson. Web. 09 Nov. 2009.
  lthttp//www.bio.davidson.edu/COURSES/genomics/meth
  od/microsatellite.htmlgt.
• slide 6"Microsatellite Marker Method - Genomics
  Course." Biology _at_ Davidson. Web. 09 Nov. 2009.
  lthttp//www.bio.davidson.edu/COURSES/genomics/meth
  od/microsatellite.htmlgt.
• slide 7"SNPs Variations on a Theme." National
  Center for Biotechnology Information. Web. 09
  Nov. 2009. lthttp//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/About/prim
  er/snps.htmlgt
• slide 8"SNPs Variations on a Theme." National
  Center for Biotechnology Information. Web. 09
  Nov. 2009. lthttp//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/About/prim
  er/snps.htmlgt.
• slide 9"SNPs Variations on a Theme." National
  Center for Biotechnology Information. Web. 09
  Nov. 2009. lthttp//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/About/prim
  er/snps.htmlgt.
• slide 10"SNPs Variations on a Theme." National
  Center for Biotechnology Information. Web. 09
  Nov. 2009. lthttp//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/About/prim
  er/snps.htmlgt

34

• slide 11"SNPs Variations on a Theme." National
  Center for Biotechnology Information. Web. 09
  Nov. 2009. lthttp//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/About/prim
  er/snps.htmlgt
• slide 12"SNPs Variations on a Theme." National
  Center for Biotechnology Information. Web. 09
  Nov. 2009. lthttp//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/About/prim
  er/sns.htmlgt."Microsatellite Marker Method -
  Genomics Course." Biology _at_ Davidson. Web. 09
  Nov. 2009. lthttp//www.bio.davidson.edu/COURSES/ge
  nomics/method/microsatellite.htmlgt.
• slide 13Dunham, Ian. Genome Mapping and
  Sequencing. Norfolk Horizon Press, 2003. Print.
  "Using Microsatellites and SNPs as Tools in
  Medical Genetic Diagnostic and Reasearch." Use of
  Microsatellites and SNPs (2003) n. pag. Web.
  lthttp//ivythesis.typepad.com/term_paper_topics/20
  09/09/using-microsatellites-and-snps-as-tools-in-m
  edical-genetic-diagnostics-and-research.htmlgt.
  "Human Genome Project Information." DNA
  Forensics. 19 june 2009. genomics energy gov. ,
  Web. lthttp//www.ornl.gov/sci/techresources/Human_
  Genome/elsi/forensics.shtmlgt.
• slide 14Dunham, Ian. Genome Mapping and
  Sequencing. Norfolk Horizon Press, 2003. Print.
  "Using Microsatellites and SNPs as Tools in
  Medical Genetic Diagnostic and Reasearch." Use of
  Microsatellites and SNPs (2003) n. pag. Web.
  lthttp//ivythesis.typepad.com/term_paper_topics/20
  09/09/using-microsatellites-and-snps-as-tools-in-m
  edical-genetic-diagnostics-and-research.htmlgt.
  "Human Genome Project Information." DNA
  Forensics. 19 june 2009. genomics energy gov. ,
  Web. lthttp//www.ornl.gov/sci/techresources/Human_
  Genome/elsi/forensics.shtmlgt.Clayton, Julie. 50
  Years of DNA . Hampshire Palgrave Macmillian,
  2003. Print.

35

• slide 15"Using Microsatellites and SNPs as Tools
  in Medical Genetic Diagnostic and Reasearch." Use
  of Microsatellites and SNPs (2003) n. pag. Web.
  lthttp//ivythesis.typepad.com/term_paper_topics/20
  09/09/using-microsatellites-and-snps-as-tools-in-m
  edical-genetic-diagnostics-and-research.htmlgt.
  "Human Genome Project Information." DNA
  Forensics. 19 june 2009. genomics energy gov. ,
  Web. lthttp//www.ornl.gov/sci/techresources/Human_
  Genome/elsi/forensics.shtmlgt.Sferstein,
  Richard. Criminalistics AN Introduction to
  Forensic Science. 9th. New Jersey Prentice Hall
  , 2007. Print. Clayton, Julie. 50 Years of DNA .
  Hampshire Palgrave Macmillian, 2003. Print.
• slide 16"Using Microsatellites and SNPs as Tools
  in Medical Genetic Diagnostic and Reasearch." Use
  of Microsatellites and SNPs (2003) n. pag. Web.
  lthttp//ivythesis.typepad.com/term_paper_topics/20
  09/09/using-microsatellites-and-snps-as-tools-in-m
  edical-genetic-diagnostics-and-research.htmlgt.
  "Human Genome Project Information." DNA
  Forensics. 19 june 2009. genomics energy gov. ,
  Web. lthttp//www.ornl.gov/sci/techresources/Human_
  Genome/elsi/forensics.shtmlgt. Sferstein,
  Richard. Criminalistics AN Introduction to
  Forensic Science. 9th. New Jersey Prentice Hall
  , 2007. Print. Clayton, Julie. 50 Years of DNA .
  Hampshire Palgrave Macmillian, 2003. Print.
• slide 17"Using Microsatellites and SNPs as Tools
  in Medical Genetic Diagnostic and Reasearch." Use
  of Microsatellites and SNPs (2003) n. pag. Web.
  lthttp//ivythesis.typepad.com/term_paper_topics/20
  09/09/using-microsatellites-and-snps-as-tools-in-m
  edical-genetic-diagnostics-and-research.htmlgt.
  "Human Genome Project Information." DNA
  Forensics. 19 june 2009. genomics energy gov. ,
  Web. lthttp//www.ornl.gov/sci/techresources/Human_
  Genome/elsi/forensics.shtmlgt.Sferstein,
  Richard. Criminalistics AN Introduction to
  Forensic Science. 9th. New Jersey Prentice Hall
  , 2007. Print. Clayton, Julie. 50 Years of DNA .
  Hampshire Palgrave Macmillian, 2003. Print.
• slide 18David W , Mount. Bioinformatics
  Sequences and Genome Analysis. New York Cold
  Spring Harbor Laboratory, 2004. Print.
  Sferstein, Richard. Criminalistics AN
  Introduction to Forensic Science. 9th. New
  Jersey Prentice Hall , 2007. Print. "Using
  Microsatellites and SNPs as Tools in Medical
  Genetic Diagnostic and Reasearch." Use of
  Microsatellites and SNPs (2003) n. pag. Web.
  lthttp//ivythesis.typepad.com/term_paper_topics/20
  09/09/using-microsatellites-and-snps-as-tools-in-m
  edical-genetic-diagnostics-and-research.htmlgt.
  "Human Genome Project Information." DNA
  Forensics. 19 june 2009. genomics energy gov. ,
  Web. lthttp//www.ornl.gov/sci/techresources/Human_
  Genome/elsi/forensics.shtmlgt.Jonathan, Pevsner.
  Bioinformatics and Functional Genomics. Hobroken
  Wley-Blackwell, 2009. Print.

36

• slide 19"Using Microsatellites and SNPs as Tools
  in Medical Genetic Diagnostic and Reasearch." Use
  of Microsatellites and SNPs (2003) n. pag. Web.
  lthttp//ivythesis.typepad.com/term_paper_topics/2
  009/09/using-microsatellites-and-snps-as-tools-in-
  medical-genetic-diagnostics-and-research.htmlgt.
  (16)"Human Genome Project Information." DNA
  Forensics. 19 june 2009. genomics energy gov. ,
  Web. lthttp//www.ornl.gov/sci/techresources/Human_
  Genome/elsi/forensics.shtmlgt.
• slide 20"Using Microsatellites and SNPs as Tools
  in Medical Genetic Diagnostic and Reasearch." Use
  of Microsatellites and SNPs (2003) n. pag. Web.
  lthttp//ivythesis.typepad.com/term_paper_topics/20
  09/09/using-microsatellites-and-snps-as-tools-in-m
  edical-genetic-diagnostics-and-research.htmlgt.
  "Human Genome Project Information." DNA
  Forensics. 19 june 2009. genomics energy gov. ,
  Web. lthttp//www.ornl.gov/sci/techresources/Human_
  Genome/elsi/forensics.shtmlgt.
• slide 21http//dnamazing.com/dna-testing-improves
  -identification-of-survivors/
• slide 22"Using Microsatellites and SNPs as Tools
  in Medical Genetic Diagnostic and Reasearch." Use
  of Microsatellites and SNPs (2003) n. pag. Web.
  lthttp//ivythesis.typepad.com/term_paper_topics/20
  09/09/using-microsatellites-and-snps-as-tools-in-m
  edical-genetic-diagnostics-and-research.htmlgt.
  "Human Genome Project Information." DNA
  Forensics. 19 june 2009. genomics energy gov. ,
  Web. lthttp//www.ornl.gov/sci/techresources/Human_
  Genome/elsi/forensics.shtmlgt.
• slide 23"SNP Fact Sheet." Oak Ridge National
  Laboratory. N.p., n.d. Web. 9 Nov. 2009.
  lthttp//www.ornl.gov/sci/techresources/Human_Genom
  e/faq/snps.shtml

37

• slide 24defendant, the. "frontline the case for
  innocence the dna revolution the dna wars are
  over." PBS. N.p., n.d. Web. 9 Nov. 2009.
  lthttp//www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/cas
  e/revolution/wars.htmlgt.
• slide 25defendant, the. "frontline the case for
  innocence the dna revolution the dna wars are
  over." PBS. N.p., n.d. Web. 9 Nov. 2009.
  lthttp//www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/cas
  e/revolution/wars.htmlgt.
• slide 26defendant, the. "frontline the case for
  innocence the dna revolution the dna wars are
  over." PBS. N.p., n.d. Web. 9 Nov. 2009.
  lthttp//www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/cas
  e/revolution/wars.htmlgt.
• slide 27defendant, the. "frontline the case for
  innocence the dna revolution the dna wars are
  over." PBS. N.p., n.d. Web. 9 Nov. 2009.
  lthttp//www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/cas
  e/revolution/wars.htmlgt.
• slide 28Lect. 8. Intro. to microsatellites."
  University of Wyoming. N.p., n.d. Web. 9 Nov.
  2009. lthttp//www.uwyo.edu/dbmcd/molmark/lect08/le
  ct8.htmlSectBgt.
• slide 29Lect. 8. Intro. to microsatellites."
  University of Wyoming. N.p., n.d. Web. 9 Nov.
  2009. lthttp//www.uwyo.edu/dbmcd/molmark/lect08/le
  ct8.htmlSectBgt."Definition of
  Microsatellites." The Woodrow Wilson National
  Fellowship Foundation. N.p., n.d. Web. 9 Nov.
  2009. http//www.woodrow.org/teachers/esi/2002/Bio
  logy/Projects/p3/definition.htm "SNP Fact
  Sheet." Oak Ridge National Laboratory. N.p., n.d.
  Web. 9 Nov. 2009. lthttp//www.ornl.gov/sci/techres
  ources/Human_Genome/faq/snps.shtmlgt.
• slide 30Mohlke, Karen. "Studying Genetic
  Variation II Laboratory Techniques." Web. 9 Nov
  2009. lthttp//www.genome.gov/Pages/Research/Intram
  uralResearch/DIRCalendar/CurrentTopicsinGenomeAnal
  ysis2006/CourseHandouts/CTGA2006Lec11Grey.pdfgt.
• slide 31"Panzea FAQs." Panzea Home. N.p., n.d.
  Web. 9 Nov. 2009. lthttp//www.panzea.org/info/faq.
  htmlSNP?gt.
• slide 32Mohlke, Karen. "Studying Genetic
  Variation II Laboratory Techniques." Web. 9 Nov
  2009. lthttp//www.genome.gov/Pages/Research/Intram
  uralResearch/DIRCalendar/CurrentTopicsinGenomeAnal
  ysis2006/CourseHandouts/CTGA2006Lec11Grey.pdfgt.