Global Challenges and Solutions in Waste Management

1
Global Challenges and Solutions in Waste
Management

• Sandra Cointreau
• Global Solid Waste Management Advisor
• The World Bank
• Phone [phone]
• www.sandracointreau.com

2
We are a Global Community

• Global information exchange, commodity trading,
  trade agreements, and limits to environmental
  assimilation have created a new era of global
  interconnectivenessmost outcomes are good, some
  are not so good.
• Some adverse outcomes ozone, acid rain, climate
  change, toxic algal blooms, SARS, Avian
  Influenza, Swine Flu, energy price fluctuations,
  the current Economic Crisis.
• 80 of the worlds people and 40 of the worlds
  livestock live in developing countries and what
  happens there affects us all.
• One World, One Health, One
  Welfare.

3
Dreaming our Dream

• We are a solution-seeking species.
• We focus our attention on problems and set our
  intention on solutions.
• Problems are nothing more than challenges to our
  intention to manifest our dreams.

4
Framework of this Presentation

• Challenges
• Sustainable municipal waste systems for growing
  global urbanization, densification and
  industrialization.
• Social inclusion of the poor, women, diverse
  peoples and the informal sector.
• Special solutions for special wastes with special
  needs.

5
Challenge 1

• Sustainable municipal waste systems for growing
  global urbanization, densification and
  industrialization.

6
Population Growth

• From the time of the first Eve, it took human
  history over 3 million years to reach 1 BB people
  in the early 1800s.
• Today, we gain 1 BB people every 12-14 years.
• World population grows by more than 200,000 each
  day.
• This year, urban populations exceeded rural
  populations.

7
Municipal Solid Wastes

• Developed Countries High Income
• Population 1.0 BB
• Waste 1.4 MM tonnes/day (1.4 kg/capita/day)
• Developing Countries Middle Income
• Population - 3.0 BB ( 30 of city dwellers live
  in slums)
• Waste 2.4 MM tonnes/day (0.8 kg/capita/day)
• Developing Countries Low Income
• Population - 2.4 BB ( 65 of city dwellers live
  in slums)
• Waste 1.4 MM tonnes/day (0.6 kg/capita/day)

8
Municipal Waste Collection and Disposal( of
waste tonnes handled)

• Developed Countries High Income
• Collection 100
• Safe Disposal 100
• Developing Countries Middle Income
• Collection 60
• Safe Disposal - 30
• Developing Countries Low Income
• Collection 40
• Safe Disposal 5

9
Available Local Finances

• Developed Countries High Income
• 34.5 BB GDP (34,500 /capita/year)
• 18 to government expenditures (6,210
  /capita/yr)
• Developing Countries Middle Income
• 8.5 BB GDP (2,833 /capita/year)
• 14 to government expenditures (397 /capita/yr)
• Developing Countries Low Income
• 1.4 BB GDP (583 /capita/year)
• 11 to government expenditures (64 /capita/yr)

10
What can we do?Ideas for the global dialogue.

• Holistic decision models to assess the complex
  array of energy, emissions, and cost implications
  of alternative solutions.
• Economic instruments to motivate waste
  generators, service providers and materials users
  to upgrade waste systems and reduce wastes.

11
What can we do?Ideas for the global dialogue.

• Regulatory frameworks and rule-of-law to level
  the playing field for the private sector and
  incentivize new systems.
• Transparent competitive private sector
  involvement proceedures. (see World Bank
  guidance by Sandra Cointreau at
  www.sandracointreau.com)
• Standardized data collection systems to enable
  comparative cost and emission analysis and
  enhance communication about options and outcomes.

12
Holistic Decision Modeling

• The USEPA holistic decision model was used to
  assess options in a global study, including a
  major city in every region of the developing
  world (ECA, SAR, EAP, MENA, AFR1, AFR2, LAC), and
  two high income cities, a total of 9 cities, led
  by consultants Nippon Koei Co.
  (www.sandracointreau.com)
• The model took 10 years to develop and involved
  more than 80 organizations. (e.g., 32 local
  governments, 4 federal agencies, 35 private
  companies, 9 non-government organizations, and 10
  universities).
• The model is operated by Research Triangle
  Institute (RTI) which has a public/private
  partnership agreement with USEPA.

13
Holistic Decision Modeling

• Includes well documented and peer reviewed
  defaults (e.g., emissions, unit costs, waste
  composition, land requirements, energy
  requirements, residuals, labor).
• The defaults are regularly updated by USEPA as
  new research is conducted and reported.
• Documentation exists on all defaults and is
  peer-reviewed.
• Rural conditions can be modeled, as well as urban
  conditions.
• Local inputs can overide defaults where good data
  is available.

14
Holistic Decision Modeling

• Model set up to examine multiple technical
  systems
• Collection Systems (segregated or non-segregated
  for recyclables and other treatment streams).
• Transfer Systems (rail and truck).
• Materials Recovery Facilities.
• Composting (MSW, yard waste, and
  vermi-composting).
• Combustion and Waste-to-Energy (for a range of
  standards).
• Landfill (conventional, ash, bioreactor and
  baseline open dump) with vent, flare, or recovery
  of gas.

15
Holistic Decision Modeling

• Scenarios studied for the 9 city global study,
  conducted by Nippon Koei Co and RTI
  (www.sandracointreau.com)
• Trade-offs between technologies.
• Technology combinations to optimize reduction of
  green house gases.
• Technology combinations to optimize reduction of
  fine particulates.
• Technology combinations to optimize materials
  recovery and recycling.
• Technology combinations to use the least energy
  and optimize energy recovery.
• Technology combinations to optimize costs.

16
Holistic Decision Modeling

• Landfill with gas ventilation had the highest
  carbon emissions, but lowest costs.
• Manual systems for recycling and composting used
  less energy and had lower costs than mechanized
  systems, but emissions depended largely on
  whether they had a low or high fossil fuel energy
  grid mix.
• Incineration with energy recovery and ferrous
  metals recovery gave the best energy optimization
  and emission results, but highest cost.
• Composting and landfill with flaring or gas
  recovery gave the lowest cost results, among
  systems with acceptable carbon emissions.

17
Economic Instruments

• Market-based incentives and disincentives that
• Study of economic instruments used globally done
  for IADB, main author was Sandra Cointreau
  www.sandracointreau.com
• mobilize the self-interest of consumers,
  producers, and service providers to improve solid
  waste management and
• incorporate the polluter-pays principle of fully
  covering the costs of environmental externalities
  from the combined population of waste generators
  not necessarily from each waste generator based
  on quantity and pollution hazard per generator.

18
Revenue Instruments

• Instruments that generate government income from
  consumers, producers and service providers from
• Charges,
• Taxes, and
• Subsidy reductions.
• Examples waste collection user charges and
  tipping fees that encourage waste reduction,
  landfill taxes to encourage alternative disposal
  techniques, fuel taxes to encourage alternative
  fuels, subsidy reductions on materials or
  products that compete with marketing of secondary
  materials or recovered resources.

19
Revenue Instruments

• Instruments that enable producers and service
  providers to obtain income from government
  through
• Charge or tax reduction,
• Fiscal incentives and grants,
• Development rights,
• Emission reduction funds.
• Examples tax reductions to investors in
  government bonds for facilities, depreciation
  period changes for capital investments, free use
  of government land for new facilities, concession
  rights to access waste materials for recyclables
  and resources, carbon finance.

20
Non-Revenue Instruments

• Instruments that motivate without the generation
  or provision of revenue, using
• Deposit-refund systems,
• Take-back systems (product stewardship),
• Product and production change incentives,
• Performance disclosure and consumer ratings,
• Trade-off policies, and
• Procurement policies and liability laws.
• Examples deposits on tires, bottles and cans
  take-back of printer cartridges, tax incentives
  for production changes that enable more
  recyclable feedstock use, ratings of computer
  companies that include recycled content,
  eco-certification of products, cap-and-trade
  emissions policies, procurement docs and
  liability laws that encourage recycled content.

21
Challenge 2

• Social inclusion of the poor, women, diverse
  peoples and the informal sector.

22
Poverty and Informal Sector Issues

• One third of the worlds urban population lives
  below the poverty level of 2/day.
• Majority of the urban poor work in the informal
  sector.
• Informal sector employment ranges from 30-70 of
  GDP in developing countries.
• Some collection of wastes and nearly all
  recycling of wastes in developing countries is
  done by the informal sector.

23
Gender Issues

• 2/3 of illiterate adults are women over 300
  million illiterate women.
• Children of illiterate women are twice as likely
  to die before their fifth birthday.
• Women comprise roughly 30 of informal waste
  pickers, and most bring their children to work,
  which limits child access to education.
• Waste picking is commonly the occupation of last
  resort before having to enter the sex trade.

24
Youth Issues

• Unemployment for urban youth is 2-3 times higher
  than for others, needing priority attention.
• Youth groups have shown unique creativity and
  entrepeneurial action when given opportunity.

25
What can we do?Ideas for the global dialogue.

• Gender action provides access to livelihood,
  security and property, and involves special
  study, empowerment, and training. (See video on
  www.worldbank.org/solidwaste )
• Procurement specifications and preferences
  include informal sector partnerships with the
  formal private sector.

26
What can we do?Ideas for the global dialogue.

• Waste pickers children need special arrangements
  for schooling, and orphans working as waste
  pickers have unique needs for livelihood support
  in order to attend school.
• Waste picker cooperatives need access to markets,
  including help to network with end users as
  buyers, to skip the intermediary agents for
  better pricing.
• Registration of waste pickers and designation of
  zones of collection and places for sorting and
  storing will bring them freedom from harassment.
• Recognition and payment for materials that do not
  need to be landfilled.

27
What can we do?Ideas for the global dialogue.

• Youth entrepeneurship in community-based waste
  collection and recycling provides career
  development and involves training, networking,
  and empowerment.
• Targeted aid to improve living and working
  conditions of the informal sector, especially of
  waste picker and recycling groups.

28
Challenge 3

• Special solutions for special wastes with special
  needs
• Priority 1 wastes from intensified livestock
  production.

29
Emerging Diseases from Animals

• 60 of all 1,415 known infectious diseases are
  zoonotic, i.e., they can infect both animals and
  humans
• 70 of all emerging human diseases in the past 15
  years are zoonotic.
• Contact with excreta and carcasses of infected
  animals are priority means of transmission for
  many zoonotic diseases.
• Farm-based livestock wastes (e.g., in over 30 of
  wastes in UK) carry zoonotic pathogens.
• Livestock wastes from livestock under stress
  (during transport and at slaughtering plants)
  show high shedding of zoonotic pathogens .

Hutchison, ML, et.al., Levels of Zoonotic Agents
in British Livestock Manures, 2004
30
Some Diseases that Derived from Animals

• Zoonotic Diseases Animal to Human
• SARS, Avian Influenza (H5N1), Swine/Avian Flu
  (H1N1), Nipah Virus, Mad Cow, Swine Influenza,
  Ebola, West Nile Virus, Monkey Pox, Lyme, Rocky
  Mountain Spotted Fever, Rabies, Tuberculosis,
  Rift Valley Fever, HIV, Shigellosis,
  Salmonellosis, Campylobacteriosis, Toxoplasmosis,
  Brucellosis, Hanta Virus, Leptospirosis,
  Ringworm, Yellow Fever, Bubonic Plague, Anthrax,
  Glanders

31
Global Ratio of People to Livestock

• Year 2000
• 1 person to 5.4 livestock
• Year 2030
• 1 person to 6.4 livestock

32
Livestock Populations 2000 -gt 2030

• High Income Countries (34,500/cap/yr)
• People 1.2 BB -gt 1.3 BB
• Cattle, Pigs, Sheep, Goats 4.0 BB -gt 5.2 BB
• Poultry 15.0 BB -gt 24.8 BB
• Low and Middle Income (583 and 2,833/cap/yr)
• People 4.9 BB -gt 7.1 BB
• Cattle, Pigs, Sheep, Goats 3.0 BB -gt 4.2 BB
• Poultry 11.0 BB -gt 19.2 BB

UN Dept. of Economics and Social Affairs, World
Population to 2300 Henning Steinfeld, FAO, The
Livestock Revolution A Global Veterinary
Mission, 2004
33
Whats in Excreta from Intensive Livestock Farms?

• Aside from traditional manure organic and
  nutrient loadings, and natural hormones
• Antimicrobials used for growth promotion and
  disease prevention.
• Antibiotic-resistant pathogens.,
• Heavy metals.
• Synthetic hormones used for growth promotion and
  reproduction control.
• In some countries, there are banned feed
  additives, such as Melamine.

Hutchison, M.L., et al. Levels of Zoonotic
Agents in British Livestock Manures.
2004. Tueber, M. Veterinary Use and Antibiotic
Resistance. 2001. Includes doxycycline,
bacitracin, avoparcin, tetracyclines, penicillin,
virginiamycin, tylosin, erythromycin, lincomycin,
flavophospholipol, monensin, carbadox,
spiramycin, tiamulin, salinomycin,sulfamethizole,
roxarsone (arsenic based). October 2008
Chinese newspapers widely reported that melamine
(also known as cyanuromide) has been added to
most animal and fish livestock feeds in China to
falsely boost the appearance of higher feed
protein content.
34
Disease Linkages to Waste

• Many animal diseases are spread by pathogens that
  are excreted or are in blood.
• Up to 75 of antibiotics given to livestock pass
  through the livestock gut into excreta, intact
  and active.
• Crowded and stressed livestock excrete more
  pathogens than pastoral and calm livestock.
• Inadequate excreta treatment and management
  spreads pathogens and antibiotics into the
  environment for the expansion of antibiotic
  resistance to micro-organisms and wildlife.

35
Growing Use of Antimicrobials

• World Health Organization estimates half of total
  amount of antimicrobials produced globally are
  used in food animals.
• In US, 70-80 of all antimicrobials sold are for
  livestock and 85 of livestock antimicrobial use
  is for non-therapeutic feed addition.

36
Antibiotic Resistant Pathogens

• Antibiotic resistance develops within the
  livestock gut, and antibiotic resistant pathogens
  are excreted.
• There is horizontal gene transfer of antibiotic
  resistant genes in farm animal colons and there
  is stable maintenance of resistance transferred
  genes. (e.g., tetracycline, erythromycin,
  ampicillin, vancomycin, clindamycine resistance
  common),
• Antibiotic resistance genes in animals and humans
  contain identical elements, enabling spread from
  animal microflora to human microflora through the
  fecal-oral route.

N.B. Shoemaker, et.al. Evidence for Extensive
Resistance Gene Transfer, 2000. M.Tueber, M
Veterinary Use and Antibiotic Resistance, Swiss
Laboratory of Food Microbiology, 2001
37
Waste Treatment and Antimicrobials

• Antimicrobials are complex compounds that resist
  biological decomposition waste treatment.
• Anaerobic digestion destroyed only 59 of
  oxytetracycline in manures in 64 days. Methane
  production was reduced from 20-80 when manures
  contain antibiotics, depending on the
  concentration of antibiotics in the manures.
• Composting destroyed 95 of oxytetracyline in
  manures within first week. Also, levels of
  oxytetracycline resistant bacteria were 10-fold
  lower.
• Antibiotics found intact in treated sewage sludge
  were ciprofloxacin, doxycycline, norfloxacin,
  ofloxacin, and triclosan.

J.Fick, et.al., Antivial Osetimiver is not
Removed or Degraded in Normal Sewage Treatment,
2007 O.A. Arikan, et.al., Fate and Effect of
Oxytetracycline during Anaerobic Digestion of
Manure from Therapeutically Treated Calves.,
2006 E.Z.Harrison, et.al., Organic Chemicals
in Sewage Sludges, 2006 O.A. Arikan, et.al,
Composting Rapidly Reduces Levels of Extractable
Oxytetracycline in Manure from Therapeutically
Treated Beef Calves, 2005.
38
Examples of Antibiotic Resistance

• One out of every three cases of human infection
  by Salmonella is resistant to antibiotics.
• Nearly all strains of Staphylococcus infection in
  the US are now resistant to penicillin.
• More than 2 MM patients get infections in the
  hospital, and that more than 70 of bacteria
  causing hospital-acquired infections are
  resistant to at least one antibiotic commonly
  used to treat them.

CDC website data.
39
Bioaerosol risks

• Bioaerosols inside intensive pig farms have shown
  more than 90 had multi-drug resistance.,
• Antibiotic resistance bacteria have been
  recovered 150 meters downwind from intensive pig
  farms.
• Swine workers and veterinarians have elevated
  carriage of MRSA (methicillin-resistant
  Staphyloccoccus aureus), and the Netherlands
  isolates them upon hospital entry.,

A.Chapin, et.al, Airborne Multidrug-Resistance
Bacteria Isolated from Swine CAFO, 2005. S.G.
Gibbs, et.al. Isolation of Antibiotic-Resistant
Bacteria Downwind of Swine CAFO, 2006 Wulf,
M, et.al. MRSA in Veterinary Doctors and Students
in Netherlands, 2006
40
Arsenicals in the Environment

• One group of antimicrobials used for growth
  promotion contains organic arsenic compounds
  (e.g., roxarsonne, arsanilic acid).
• Arsenic-based antimicrobials are extensively used
  in poultry and swine factory farming worldwide
  (over 70 of US poultry are fed arsenic-based
  antimicrobials daily, while EU and New Zealand
  banned arsenicals from in-feed livestock use).
• Up to 90 of the arsenic fed to livestock is
  excreted.
• Some aresenic is converted in the gut from
  organic to toxic inorganic forms before
  excretion.
• Up to 70-90 of arsenic in poultry litter was
  found to be readily soluble in water.
• Arsenic feed additive compounds readily degrade
  to toxic forms in anaerobic/reducing settings
  within the environment.
• Anaerobic digestion may convert all of the
  arsenic to toxic forms.
• Burning of animal wastes releases arsenic stack
  gas emissions.

B.P.Jackson, et.al., Fate of Arsenic Compounds
in Poultry Litter upon Land Application, 2006 D.
Rutherfold, et.al., Environmental Fate of
Roxarsone in Poultry Litter, 2003
41
Arsenic in Manure and Litter

• Reported levels in US poultry manure and litter
  were up to 32 mg/kg arsenic.
• Reported levels in US pelletalized poultry litter
  sold as fertilizer were up to 39 mg/kg arsenic.
• Reported levels in Chinese swine manure were up
  to 119 mg/kg.
• Average US sewage sludge is only 10 mg/kg.

B.K.Anderson, et.al., Effect of Dietary
3-Nitro-4-Hydroxyphenylarsonic Acid on Total
Broiler Excreta and Broiler Litter,
2003. K.E.Nachman, et.al., Arsenic A Roadblock
to Potential Animal Waste Management Solutions,
2005. Y-X.Li, et.all, Emissions of Additive
Arsenic in Beijing Pig Feeds and the Residues in
Pig Manure, 2005. Harrison, E.Z., et.al.,
Land Application of Sewage Sludges an Appraisal
of the US Regulations, 1999
42
Arsenic Pollution from Chinese Hog Farms

• Study of manure application from Chinese hog
  farms showed arsenic in potato crop soils ranged
  from 25.8-55.5 mg/kg, in rice paddy soils ranged
  from 15-23 mg/kg, and in fish pond sediment
  ranged from 30-45 mg/kg, compared to the national
  maximum allowable arsenic in soil standard of 15
  mg/kg.
• Sweet potato, rice and fish fatty tissue uptake
  from these soils was significant, with higher
  uptake correlating with higher soil levels.

Wang, Fu Min, et al. Investigation on the
Pollution of Organoarsenical Additives to Animal
Feed in the Surroundings and Farmland near Hog
Farms, 2006.
43
Copper in Hog Feed

• Study at 10 large Chinese hog farms showed more
  than 60 of the feed samples exceeded EU copper
  standards for addition to feed.
• About 90 of the copper fed was eventually
  excreted to manure.
• Manures in this China showed copper levels were
  concentrated 3-5 times over levels found in feed,
  with levels over 2,000 mg/kg found in some
  manures.

Li, Yan-Xia, et. al., Contributions of
Additives Cu to its Accumulation in Pig Feces,
study in Beijing and Fuxon, China, 2006
44
Current waste management

• In high-income countries
• Most excreta and bedding is stored in piles,
  pits, lagoons.
• Most excreta and bedding is applied to cropland
  after storage.
• Some is pretreated by anaerobic digestion, and
  some is composted for marketing as a soil
  conditioner.
• Some animal remains and blood are rendered into
  animal food.
• Specified animal remains (particularly spine and
  head parts that could contain TSEs) receive
  special treatment before being allowed in
  sanitary landfills.

45
Current waste management

• In developing countries ( Global Livestock Live
  Market and Slaughterhouse Study by Nippon Koei Co
  and ProAnd Australia Pty on www.sandracointreau.c
  om)
• Most fifth quarter items, spinal column and heads
  are sold
• untreated for human and animal food.
• Excreta is applied to crop land or discharged to
  fish ponds.
• Unusable items, like the intestinal and rumen
  pouch content, are mostly discharged to open
  dumps.
• Blood is mostly discharged to drains, surface
  waters, and sometimes to blood ponds that seep
  into groundwater.

46
What can we do?Ideas for the global dialogue.

• Create a global alliance for sustainable
  livestock.
• Farm-to-Fork tracking of livestock extended to
  all livestock production, not just for high-end
  markets.
• Disclosure of feed and water additives by animal
  and aquaculture producers, as well as by feed
  manufacturers.

47
What can we do?Ideas for global dialogue

• Monitoring of manures for antimicrobials,
  antibiotic-resistant micro-organisms, arsenic,
  heavy metals, melamine, hormones, etc.
• Global ban of livestock use of arsenicals for
  growth promotion, as arsenic is a persistent and
  cumulative priority pollutant that is highly
  mobile and a proven carcinogenic in chronic low
  doses.
• Global ban routine non-therapeutic livestock use
  of those antibiotics that are important for human
  therapy, and require veterinary prescription for
  therapy use, to control the global surge in
  antibiotic resistant pathogens.
• Invest in improved infrastructure for livestock
  marketing and processing, and related waste
  management.

48
What can we do?Ideas for global dialogue

• Harmonize regulatory criteria for land
  application of manures, compost and biosolids, as
  well as residential soil limits. Require
  livestock wastes from intensive farms to meet the
  same persistent pollutant criteria (e.g., for
  arsenic, heavy metals) as used for solid waste
  compost or sewage sludge, or residential soil
  limits if bagged and sold on the open market for
  home gardening use.
• Clarify and harmonize regulations on organic crop
  and livestock production regarding use of
  manures from intensive livestock production on
  crop and grazing land.

49
What can we do?Ideas for global dialogue

• Economic instruments to incentivize appropriate
  waste treatment and reduce feed and energy
  subsidies that favor landless intensive farms.
• Address market pricing policies for feed, energy,
  water, and other services that favor landless
  factory farming.
• Fence all solid waste disposal sites and ban
  animals from entering and grazing convert open
  dumps to landfills so that wastes are covered
  daily and not available to birds, rodents or
  other potential disease hosts or vectors.
• Involve waste management, livestock and health
  professionals on these cross-sectoral issues to
  work in a multi-disciplinary manner.
• Set up ISWA and chapter animal waste working
  groups.

50
Blessings and Thank You
51
Links for Information
http//www.sandracointreau.com (for documents
referred to in this presentation global
holistic decision modeling study, global
livestock processing facility study, global
review of economic instruments, slides about feed
additives and sustainable waste
management) http//www.worldbank.org/solidwaste
(for World Bank solid waste activities, including
videos about social inclusion and gender
issues) Sandra Cointreau , Solid Waste
Advisor scointreau_at_worldbank.org (until November
2009) sandra_at_earthlodgeherbals.com (now and
later) US EPA Holistic Model Design Oversight
Susan Thorneloe - thorneloe.susan_at_epa.gov
RTI Model Information or Request for Model
Runs Keith Weitz kaw_at_rti.org