Richard Kempa

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Science Education and its Development a
Retrospective

• Richard Kempa

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Reflections on Some Aspects of Science Education

• Its Start in Curriculum Development
• Its Development into an Academic and Research
  Discipline
• Some Problems encountered en route
• Directions of Development and Research Work
• Contemporary Challenges

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The Event that is said to have started Modern
Science Education - Sputnik Launch on October 4,
1957
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Curriculum Development in US

• Some Major Projects Biological Sciences
  Curriculum Study (BSCS) Chemical Bond Approach
  (CBA) Chem Study Physical Sciences Study
  Committee (PSSC)
• Focus on Production of Textbooks Laborator
  y Manuals Teaching Resources

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Curriculum Development in UK

• Major Projects Nuffield O- and A-Level
  in Biology, Physics and Chemistry

• Focus on Production of Teachers
  Guides Learning Resources
  e.g., Data Books Background Readers

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Characteristics of Early Work in Science
Education

• Curriculum renewal within traditional science
  framework
• Modernisation of content to reflect contemporary
  science knowledge
• Focus on content and processes of science
• Impetus and leadership from scientists
• Little involvement of educationalists

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Development of Academic Programmes

• Purposes Manpower for future curriculum
  work Development of novel teaching
  approaches Improvement of assessment techniques
• Programme structure (example of UEA) Chemical
  activities and educational studies within 30 -
  70 boundaries

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Content Areas
Main Study Areas History of Science
Education Curriculum development
strategies Design of teaching/learning
materials Assessment and evaluation techniques
Background Study Areas Learning
theories Questionnaire design Data collection and
statistical techniques
Research Work
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Features of Early Academic Programmes

• Located in Science Faculties
• Staff had little expertise in educational
  sciences
• In research, preference for content ( science)
  issues
• In development of learning resources, acceptance
  of existing educational frameworks
• In educational research, tendency towards
  quantitative studies on heterogeneous groups
• Little awareness of differences between learners

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Example of Early Science Education Research
Project
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Formation of Induced Moment
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Two Views of Science Education Research

• Applied discipline Improvement of content
  and methods of science teaching in classroom
  and laboratory
• Pure discipline Generation of knowledge
  about the learning and teaching of science

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Major Areas of Research and Development Work in
SCIENCE Domain

• Modernisation of CONTENT of science programmes
• Rethinking of science content for different age
  and ability groups
• Individual sciences versus integrated/combined
  science
• Different links between applications and
  conceptual content

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Some Areas of Development Work
Curriculum Adaptation e.g. , Use of filmed
experiments as an alternative to pupil-based
laboratory work
Curriculum materials for new/novel science
themes e.g., Geochemistry Interaction of light
and matter Physics in medical diagnosis Chemical
industry Brain, medicines and drugs and/or new
learner groups, e.g., Different age or ability
groups
New or alternative teaching approaches
e.g. Self-instruction, Computer-based
learning WEB-based learning
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Areas of Research and Development Work in
EDUCATIONAL Domain

• Assessment, examining and evaluation procedures
• Evaluation of instructional procedures used in
  science education
• Learning behaviour of student groups and
  subgroups
• Identification of problems in science learning

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Psychological Positions Differences between
Learners
Cognitive Development Levels as key
influence (Piaget)
Predispositions towards different modes of
Information Handling (Cognitive Styles,
Motivational Traits, etc.) (Kagan,
Witkin, Messick, et al.)
Learners Pre-Knowledge as important factor
influencing learning    (Ausubel)
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Pre-Knowledge of Learner

• Advocates of position Novak (US), Driver
  (UK) and others
• Orientation of work Concept
  mapping Concept meanings and
  misconceptions Development of teaching strategies
  to effect conceptual change
• Application Sound teaching schemes BUT
  time-consuming difficult to adopt on wide scale

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Popular Areas of Study of Pupils Ideas
Acids and bases Particulate nature of
matter Brownian motion Chemical
equilibrium Reaction rates
Heat and temperature Heat and energy Mechanics Ele
ctricity Light Time
RespirationPlant growthEvolutionBiodiversity
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Cognitive Development Levels of Learners

• Key workers Shayer and Adey (UK), ASEP
  (Lucas)
• Orientation of work Exploration of pupils
  cognitive development and reasoning skills
• Major outcomes Teaching schemes for
  different levels of cognitive development
  (CLIS)
  Teaching
  programmes for cognitive acceleration through
  science (CASE)

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Individual Characteristics of Learners

• Some workers in area Martin-Diaz, Hofstein,
  Kempa, Lourdusamy, Ward
• Areas of investigation Relationship between
  science learning and learner characteristics
  such as Cognitive (or learning)
  styles Motivational traits Perception
  thresholds in observational tasks
• Applicability of findings in practice Only
  limited individualisation of Instruction is
  difficult to achieve

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Example of Difference in Perception
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Examples of Individual Differences

• Information Reception/Perception
  modes Reflectivity vs. Impulsivity Convergence
  vs. Divergence Field dependence vs. Field
  independence
• Motivational Traits Achievement-oriented
  learners Curiosity-driven learners Conscienti
  ous learners Socially motivated learners

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Research and Classroom Practice

• Science education is not exempt from the general
  criticism that research has little effect on
  classroom practice. It is significant that it is
  researchers, not teachers, who level this
  charge. Teachers do not reject
  research they ignore it. (White, 1998).

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Stages in Research Diffusion Process

• Practitioners awareness of research findings
• Practitioners initial response to findings
• Practitioner's considered response to findings
• Actions taken by practitioner in the light of
  findings
• Impact of findings on practice

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Sources of Teachers Professional Knowledge
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Findings about Science Teachers Pedagogical
Knowledge (from Costa et al.)

• Pedagogical knowledge is usually derived from
  personal experience and common sense
• Knowledge of educational research findings is
  very limited
• The validity of such knowledge is not questioned

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Practitioners Responses to Research Findings

• Practitioners are NOT AWARE of research findings
• Practitioners are AWARE of research findings,
• BUT ignore them OR find
  them impractical difficult to
  interpret difficult to implement

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Reasons for Lack of Interaction between Research
and Practice

• In the choice of research issues
  Low priority is given to
  practice-relatedness
• In the conduct of research Too much emphasis
  is given to generation of research
  findings Too little emphasis is given to
  application of findings in practice

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Towards a Solution?

• Realism is needed in attempts to bridge the gap
  between research and practice
• Previous attempts to communicate lessons from
  research have not proved effective
• Application of research findings requires
  adaptation to practitioners circumstances
• Genuine partnerships between researchers and
  practitioners need to be evolved

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It remains a struggle for researchers in science
education to enter successfully the
practitioners world Jenkins (1999)