Parts of Speech

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Parts of Speech

• Prepositions
• Nouns Pronouns Adjectives
• Verbs Adverbs
• Conjunctions Interjections

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Prepositions

• A preposition is a word used to show the
  relationship of a noun or pronoun to some other
  word in the sentence.

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Examples

• We hung the pictures beside the sofa.
• We hung the pictures above the sofa.
• We hung the pictures near the sofa.

The prepositions show the relationship between
the pictures and the sofa
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Copy these into your snoopy buckets
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Rules

• Prepositions are always followed by nouns or
  pronouns.
• If the preposition is not followed by a noun or
  pronoun, it is not acting like a preposition. (It
  may be a conjunction or adverb.)

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Phrases

• A phrase is a group of words.
• In grammar, we name phrases for the words they
  start with. Thus, a prepositional phrase is
  phrase that starts with a preposition. An
  infinitive phrase starts with an infinitive. A
  gerund phrase starts with a gerund.
• A prepositional phrase is a preposition followed
  by a noun or pronoun, which is called the object
  of the preposition.
• Examples
• Through the woods
• Across the lake
• Over the meadow
• To Grandmothers house

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Hints for success

• It is easy to find the whole prepositional phrase
  by first finding the preposition and then asking
  yourself the question What?
• Example The athlete ran around the block.
• Around is the preposition. Then ask yourself
  Around what? Your mind will answer with Around
  the block, which is the whole prepositional
  phrase.

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• Prepositional phrases are like jewelry they make
  an outfit look better, but they are not a
  necessary part of clothing.
• Similarly, prepositional phrases make sentences
  more interesting, but they are not necessary to
  the structure of the sentence.
• To have a complete sentence, all you need is a
  subject and verb.
• Prepositional phrases are units of structure that
  can be eliminated so that it is easier to find
  the subject and verb.

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Example Cross out the prep phrases to find the
subject and verb.

• The girl in the pink sweater by the window in the
  library at Hart High School read a book about a
  young man in a wheel chair after an accident on
  the subway in New York.

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Preposition or Adverb???

• If it looks like you have two prepositions in a
  row, the first one is acting like an adverb.
• Example
• The cat jumped off of the kitchen table.
• Of is the real preposition off is telling
  where the cat jumped.

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Articles

• Articles are adjectives that always lead to
  nouns.
• Articles are the words a, an, and the
• In my class, the true test of a common noun is
  Can you put an article in front of it?
• In fact, most nouns will already have articles in
  front of them.
• Consequently, prepositional phrases often have an
  article after the preposition, followed by some
  adjectives and then the object of the preposition
  (in the soft, cool breeze).
• Other times, there will only be the preposition
  and the noun (during recess).

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Nouns

• A noun is sometimes, but not always, a word which
  refers to a person, place, or object and may also
  refer to an idea, a quality, a collection, or an
  action.

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Examples

• Not a noun
• The Smith house is down the street.
• I work at a Santa Clarita school.
• The pencil sharpener is broken.
• She lost her phone.

• Is a noun
• The principles of democracy are important.
• Compassion is a trait I value.
• That group of stories is interesting.
• I enjoy hiking with my friends.

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Function in the sentence

• Subject ________ is fun.
• Direct Object I enjoy _________.
• Indirect Object I gave _____ the book.
• Predicate Nominative My hobby is ______.
• Object of the Prep By ________, we won the game.
• Object Complement They named the child ________
• Objects of verbals and the subject of the
  infinitive
• Dont worry if you are confused. You will know
  the sentence patterns by the end of the semester!

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Pronouns

• A pronoun is a word used in place of a noun or
  more than one noun.
• These words often function as nouns.
• The following pronouns always function as nouns
• I, me, you, he, him, she, we, us, they, and them.
• Each pronoun must refer to and agree with a
  specific noun, which is called the antecedent
• NOT Often when we ask a person for help, they
  are glad to assist us.
• USE Often when we ask a person for help, he is
  glad to assist us.

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Reflexive Pronouns

• Myself
• Ourselves
• Yourself, yourselves
• Himself
• Herself
• Itself
• themselves

• Reflexive pronouns may only be used when the
  antecedent has already been clearly identified.
• NOT Myself made dinner.
• USE I made myself dinner.

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Indefinite pronouns

• Everything
• Few
• Many
• Most
• No one (S)
• Some
• Several

• All
• Another
• Any
• Anyone (S)
• Both
• Each (S)
• Everybody (S)
• One (S)

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Relative pronouns

• Used to refer to people
• Who
• Whom
• Whose
• Used to refer to things
• Which
• That

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Questions

• Nouns answer the questions WHAT or WHO

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Writing Tips

• Do not begin every sentence with a person
  referenced subject.
• NOT I like football.
• USE Football is my favorite sport.
• Avoid the use of THING, IT, THAT, THIS. Use
  concrete nouns instead. DICTION
• I hate this. I hate ____________.
• The thing I like most is ____. The ______ I like
  most is ___________.
• I didnt mean it. I did not mean _____________.
• Thats stupid! _________ is stupid.

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adjectives

• Adjectives describe, limit, modify, or give
  particular information about nouns.
• Example On the last day of the English class,
  the happy students showed their excellent grammar
  skills on the final exam.

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Function in the sentence

• A single word adjective precedes the noun which
  it describes.
• Ex The purple dinosaur entertained the small
  children.
• An adj. phrase follows the noun which it
  describes.
• The rose, fragrant and lovely, accented each
  table.
• The student in the back of the room raised his
  hand.
• Tim will be the one chosen to play the lead.

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• An adj. phrase may begin a sentence, but it must
  describe the subject.
• Raised in the city, Molly had never visited a
  farm.
• Rule Place each adj. as close as possible to the
  noun it describes.
• An adj., which describes the subject, may follow
  a linking verb.
• All of my students are very intelligent.

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Forms

• Comparison words ending in er or est are
  adjectives.
• He is the tallest person in the class.
• He is taller than the teacher.
• Some adjectives can look like verbs.
• Verbs show action. Adjectives describe.
• Be careful of words ending in ing and ed
• The dozing student was obviously tired during his
  7 AM class.

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Possession

• Words which show possession are adjectives.
• The following pronouns are always used as
  adjectives
• My, mine, your, yours, its, his, hers, our, ours,
  their, theirs.
• Words which appear to be nouns but are possessive
  function as adjectives.
• In Joes car we rode to the picnic at the Smiths
  house.
• The Hart High website is very helpful.

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Questions

• Adjectives answer the questions WHAT KIND, WHICH
  ONE, or HOW MANY

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Writing tips

• For variety, try placing groups of adjectives
  after the noun they describe rather than before.
• The hot, new, red Ferrari raced down the street.
• The Ferrari- new, red, and hot- raced down the
  street.

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Writing tips

• Be sure that groups of words placed at the end of
  a sentence and beginning with WHICH or an ing
  word describe the word which they follow.
• AVOID The teacher was puzzled, which frustrated
  her. Unless WHICH describes puzzled, this
  sentence is incorrect. Delete WHICH and the
  subject, change the verb to its ing form.
• USE Being puzzled frustrated the teacher.
• AVOID Binky barked at the visitor, wagging his
  tail.
• USE Binky, wagging his tail, barked at the
  visitor.
• Or Wagging his tail, Binky barked at the visitor.

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Verbs

• A verb is a word used to express a physical or
  mental action or a state of being.
• Words such as do, come, go, and write are action
  verbs.
• Sometimes action verbs express actions that
  cannot be seen
• Believe, understand, love

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Confusing Clauses

• A phrase is a group of words
• A clause is a group of words with both a subject
  and a verb
• However, not all clauses can stand alone as
  sentences.
• NOT Which you can see is the better answer
• IS The last choice, as you can see, is the best
  answer.
• NOTE a verb may contain as many as four words
• Example The product may not have been recalled
  after all.

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functions

• Verbs usually follow the subject of the sentence.
• The verb in this sentence is found in the middle.
• A verb may begin a sentence.
• Can you locate the verb in this sentence?
• A verb may be the only word in the sentence.
• Leave!

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voice

• Verbs are either active or passive.
• In active sentences, the subject performs the
  action.
• I wrote a great essay.
• In passive sentences, the subject usually
  receives the action.
• A great essay was written by me.
• A good writer uses active voice whenever
  possible.
• TIP Dont hide the performer of the action in a
  prepositional phrase.

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Vexing Verbals

• A verbal is a word or phrase which looks like a
  verb, but doesnt function like one.
• ING He enjoys listening to classical music.
• He was listening to classical music.
• The man listening to classical music is my
  professor.

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NOTE on ING

• An ING word must have a helping verb in order to
  function as a verb. Without the helping verb, it
  becomes a verbal.
• I reading a book.
• You going to school.
• They singing a song.

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What about ED?

• The excited student thought about his vacation.
• He seems excited about his vacation.
• Thoughts of vacation excited him.
• NOTE Verbs show action. ED adjectives describe
  nouns.

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To a verb

• We like to think about vacation.
• My glasses help me to see clearly.
• Watch out for the hidden to
• My glasses help me see clearly.
• The internet helps me plan my vacations.
• NOTE Infinitives look like verbs, but they
  function as nouns, adjectives, or adverbs

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Linking verbs

• Memorize the most common linking verbs
• IS WAS BE
• AM WERE BEING
• ARE SEEM BEEN

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WRITING TIPS

• Do not overuse linking verbs.
• Avoid
• David is a student at Hart and runs
  cross-country.
• Better
• David, a student at Hart, runs cross-country.

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More writing tips

• Use vivid verbs.
• Dont settle for a verb that is almost right.
• Avoid go and come.
• Avoid He went into the classroom.
• Better He shuffled into the classroom.
• Avoid He came into the classroom.
• Better He darted into the classroom.

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A few more tips

• DONT USE GET, particularly as a helping verb.
• Avoid He gets lost easily.
• Better He becomes lost easily.
• Even better He loses his way easily.
• Avoid I get good grades.
• Better I earn good grades.
• Avoid She got home late.
• Better She arrived home late.
• Even better She missed her curfew.

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• Dont shift tenses in the middle of a paragraph.
• Avoid Honesty is an important character trait.
  Being honest in our dealings with others helps
  others to trust us. However, when others found
  out that we were dishonest, they are
  disappointed.
• Dont use would have in an IF clause. Use had
  instead.
• Avoid If I would have known, I wouldnt have
  made the mistake.
• Use If I had known, I wouldnt have made the
  mistake.

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ADVERBS

• An Adverb modifies or describes a verb, an
  adjective, another adverb, or a complete
  sentence.
• In other words, an adverb may describe any word
  except a noun.
• Wait! Why cant an adverb describe a noun?

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• Adverbs answer the questions WHERE, WHEN, WHY, or
  HOW
• Examples
• The students are extremely excited.
• The freshmen always work hard.
• The time passes very quickly.
• Seniors are not invited to the party.

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Function

• Adverbs may be found almost anywhere in a
  sentence.
• Many adverbs are highly mobile words they can be
  placed in many different locations.
• One test for adverbs is to move them if the word
  or phrase sounds okay in a new location, it is
  probably an adverb.

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Examples

• Every day the teacher makes us complete an
  assignment.
• The teacher makes us complete an assignment every
  day.
• Note only use every day as one word when it is
  functioning as an adjective.
• An everyday occurrence
• Everyday clothes

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More examples

• In the morning I come to Hart.
• I come to Hart in the morning.
• Once in a while I like to clean all my cupboards.
• I like to clean my cupboards once in a while.

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Form

• Many adverbs end in ly
• However, not all words ending in ly are adverbs.
• Examples
• The elderly man, holding the daily newspaper,
  patted the really friendly dog.
• Whats the difference?

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The following words are almost always adverbs
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Prepositions

• A word which may appear to be a preposition but
  is not followed by a noun is an adverb.
• He fell down.
• He fell down the stairs.
• We all yelled when he walked in.
• We all yelled when he walked in the room.

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Prepositional phrases

• A prepositional phrase may be used as an
  adjective telling WHICH or WHAT KIND and
  modifying a noun or pronoun.
• An adjective prepositional phrase will come right
  after the noun or pronoun that it modifies.
• Only adjective prepositional phrases modify the
  object of the preposition in another
  prepositional phrase.

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eXAMPLES

• The grass behind the house and near the fence is
  dying.
• A deep ditch was dug near the boundary of the
  factory.
• A pretty girl with brown hair and eyes sat near
  me at the banquet.

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• A prepositional phrase may be used as an adverb
  telling how, when, where, how much, and why and
  modifying the verb and sometimes an adjective.
• Adverb prepositional phrases can come anywhere in
  the sentence and can be moved within the sentence
  without changing the meaning.

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EXAMPLES

• The boys searched the beach for sand dollars.
• The three contestants listened carefully to each
  question.
• A deep ditch was dug near the boundary of the
  factory.
• A pretty girl with brown hair and eyes sat near
  me at the banquet.

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writing TIP 1

• Dont overwork intensifiers.
• Not every adjective requires a VERY.
• Overuse of intensifiers actually weakens the word
  it describes.
• Avoid I am very hungry.
• Use I could eat every item on the menu!

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Writing tip 2

• Dont use SO as a substitute for VERY.
• Avoid I am so tired tonight.
• Use I am very tired tonight
• or I could sleep for a week.

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Writing tip 3

• Dont use BECAUSE after the reason is/was.
• A because clause is always an adverb therefore,
  it cannot be placed after a linking verb. Youll
  understand this when we learn sentence patterns.
• Avoid The reason I didnt study is because I
  came home late.
• Use I didnt study because I came home late.

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Writing tip 4

• Start sentences with an adverb rather than with
  the subject.
• Some adverbs like FIRST, THEN, NEXT, FINALLY are
  strong transition words between sentences.

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examples

• I like to bake dessert breads. I look at the
  ingredients I have on hand. I find a good recipe.
  I mix a delicious batter. I pour the batter into
  two loaf pans.

• Every now and then I like to bake dessert
  breads. First I look at the ingredients I have on
  hand. Then I find a good recipe. Next I mix a
  delicious batter. Finally I pour the batter into
  two loaf pans.

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Conjunctive adverbs
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To use a comma or not?

• If the introductory adverb modifies only the
  verb, do not use a comma.
• If it modifies the entire sentence, use a comma.
• Use commas after introductory adverbs for
  emphasis.
• However, commas are like speedbumps if you
  overuse them, they become annoying.
• Dont annoy your reader!

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Examples

• Ironically, the day after the fires were
  controlled, the heavy rains began.
• Often the Hart High Indians are victorious!
• I do not like to study therefore, I earn low
  grades on tests.
• Thus far I am doing well in Honors English!

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conjunctions

• Coordinating Conjunctions join only words that
  are of equal importance.
• The following words are coordinating
  conjunctions AND, BUT, and OR
• Examples
• Mark or she will fix it.
• Kara shot and scored in the second round
• The suitcase was light but awkward.

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Parallelism

• I worked quickly and with attention
• I worked quickly and attentively.

• I wanted to go to the dance because of the music
  and to be with my friends.
• I wanted to go to the dance to enjoy the music
  and to be with my friends.

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• Correlative Conjunctions are used in pairs.
• The following pairs are correlative conjunctions
• Bothand
• Eitheror
• Neithernor
• Not onlybut also
• Whetheror

These conjunctions must join Two or more
structures That are exactly the same grammatically
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parallelism

• Ed ordered both bacon and eggs.
• Either Debbie or Lisa will collect the papers.
• Neither Tim nor Dave like the assigned topic.
• He likes not only rock music but also classical
  music.
• The team plays well whether the fans attend or
  not.

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• He enjoys not only hiking but also traveling.
• He wanted to go either to the beach or to the
  movies.
• The essay exhibited both good writing and good
  content.

• Not only does he enjoy hiking but travel also.
• He either wanted to go to the beach or to the
  movies.
• The essay was both written well and the content
  was good, too.

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WRITING TIP

• Use parallel structure in your own writing. It is
  a powerful tool.
• Okay The party was great because there was a lot
  of good food. We swam in the huge pool. Later
  there were interesting games to play. We had fun
  with the karaoke machine, and the deejay was
  really funny.
• Better Lots of good food, a huge pool,
  interesting games, a karaoke machine, and a funny
  deejay made the party great.

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• Subordinate Conjunctions introduce groups of
  words called dependent and subordinate clauses,
  which are usually adverb clauses unable to stand
  by themselves as a complete sentence.

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Subordinate Conjunctions
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• The words in the table are subordinating
  conjunctions only when they introduce a clause.
• Some of them can be used in other ways
  (prepositions, verbs)
• After the rain, the flowers bloomed.
• Before the election, we must vote.
• The principal provided a free lunch for everyone
  with good grades.

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WRITING TIP 1

• Use subordinating conjunctions to improve
  transition and to show the relationships between
  ideas.
• Poor I wrote an A essay. My grade in the class
  went up.
• Better After I wrote an A essay, my grade
  improved.
• Poor I went to the store. I need tomatoes for
  the casserole I want to make for dinner.
• Better Because I need tomatoes for the casserole
  I want to make for dinner, I went to the store.

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WRITING TIP 2

• Do not begin a sentence with SO.
• Avoid I was upset after the argument. So I
  decided to leave.
• Use I was upset after the argument so I decided
  to leave. (Note NO COMMA!)
• Or Since I was upset after the argument, I
  decided to leave.

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interjections

• An interjection is a word or group of words used
  to express strong feelings.
• Words often used as other parts of speech may
  become interjections when they express strong
  feelings.
• An interjection is usually followed by a comma or
  an exclamation point.

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examples

• Oh! How beautiful that is.
• Rats! Rejected again.
• Okay, class, be quiet!
• Ah, an A paper at last.

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WRITING TIP

• Use interjections sparingly, if at all, in formal
  essays.
• Avoid beginning sentences with WELL
• Avoid Well, then I decided to leave.
• Use Then I decided to leave.