AP Psychology

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AP Psychology

• Ms. Simon
• September 17-24, 2009
• Introduction to Research Methods

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Hindsight Bias

• The tendency to believe, after learning an
  outcome, that one would have foreseen it

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Scientific Theories

• Set of principles that organize and predict
  behaviors or events
• Link observed facts
• Imply hypotheses that offer testable predictions

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Subfields of Psychology

• Basic Psychology- research
• Applied Psychology- research put into practice as
  therapist
• Psychiatry- a medical field- deals with mental
  disorders- prescribe medication

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There are three main types of research methods in
psychology Descriptive Correlational Experi
mental                             
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Descriptive Study

• Case Study- psychologists study one individual in
  great depth in hopes of revealing universal
  principles

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Case Study Pros

• Detailed information
• Unusual Cases
• Inexpensive
• Few ethical considerations

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The Problem with the Case Study

• An individual may be atypical
• Cannot generalize results
• Difficult to Manipulate Variables
• Difficult to quantify data

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Naturalistic Observation

• Observe subjects in natural habitats without
  interacting

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Naturalistic Observation
Pros Cons
Realistic No manipulat-
Inexpensive Ion of variables
Few ethical consideration Observer Bias
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Survey Method

• Relies on questions answered by a group of people
  in interviews or questionnaires

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Survey Method

• Experimenter must identify the population to
  study
• Random sampling picking members from a population
  randomly to ensure a representative sample

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Survey Method
Pros Cons
Can gather lots of data Honest answers?
Few ethical considerations Need many participants
Inexpensive Wording Effects
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Wording Effects

• In a study by AMNH, 88 of all respondents said
  that they were interested in plants and trees,
  but only 39 said they were interested in botany.
• One out of five Americans (22 percent) doubted
  that the Holocaust had occurred. 12 said they
  werent sure

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What to Watch for

• Order of choices
• Is the time frame specified?
• How personal or direct is the wording?
• Is there a cultural bias?

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Correlational Studies

• Correlational studies assess the association
  between two or more characteristics of interest
  without ascribing causes
• Is a correlational study an experiment?

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Correlation coefficient

• Example R .37

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Correlational Studies
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Correlational Studies
Pros Cons
Inexpensive Confounding variables
Few ethical considerations Illusory correlation
Time Does not
Objective I mply causation
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Illusory Correlation

• When we believe there is a relationship between
  two things, we are likely to notice and recall
  instances that confirm our belief

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• What is the correlation?
• 1) good looks/popularity
• 2) self-esteem/depression
• 3) brain size/intelligence
• 4) money/happiness
• 5) Education/length of life

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Correlation determining causation

• There is a strong correlation between people
  who ate oatmeal for breakfast as a child and
  cancer versus people who ate Frosted Flakes for
  breakfast as a child

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Fridays Exam What to Study

• About 40 Historical Approaches, 60 Research
  Methods
• Study mostly from Class Discussion!
• Format Multiple Choice, One short AP exam style
  essay question, short answer and/or matching

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Research Methods
Descriptive Correlational Experimental
Explains behavior using natural observations assess the association between two or more characteristics of interest Researcher manipulates one variable and observes the effect on another variable
1) Case studies 2) Naturalistic 3) Surveys 1) Causation 2) Illusory correlation 3) Correlational Coefficient Experimental Design Confounding Variables, double-blind
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Experimental Method

• Researcher manipulates one variable (independent
  variable) and observes the effect on another
  variable (dependent variable)
• Allows one to show a causal relationship

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• Q How is the experimental group different from
  the control group?
• A The experimental group receives or reacts to
  the independent variable and the control group
  does not receive the independent variable
• Q Why is a control group needed?
• A Provides baseline for comparison

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• Confounding variable
• external differences between the experimental
  group and the control group other than those
• resulting from
• the independent
• variable

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Confounding Variables

• 1) Placebo Effect
• experimental results caused by expectations
  alone

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Confounding Variables

• Demand Characteristics- participants form an
  interpretation of the experiment's purpose and
  unconsciously change their behavior accordingly

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• How can we control for
• confounding variables?

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• How can we control for
  confounding variables?
• 1) Random Assignment
• method of assigning subjects to groups to
  minimize pre-existing differences between those
  groups
• This is an example of Between subjects
  design Participants in the experimental and
  control group are different individuals

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• How can be control for confounding variables?
• 2) Within subjects design
• Technique where subjects serve as control and
  experimental group.
• 3) Twin Studies

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Confounding Variables

• Experimenter bias- researchers expectations
  about the outcome of a study influence the
  results
• Q How can we eliminate experimenter bias?

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How can we eliminate experimenter bias?

• Multiple Experimenters
• 2. Double blind procedure- research design in
  which neither the experimenter or the
  participants know who is in the experimental
  versus control group

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AP Psychology

• Ms. Simon
• September 24, 2009
• Experimental Statistics

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Do Now

• From your reading Why do we need operational
  definitions?

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How do psychologists present data?

• Frequency Distributions

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Statistics

• Statistical significance (p) is the likelihood
  that the observed difference between groups
  results from a real difference rather than chance
  alone
• Whats a good p value?

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When is data statistically significant?
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1) Large difference between the two means
) Large difference between the two means
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When is data statistically significant?
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When is data statistically significant?

• 2) Small standard deviations

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But whats a standard deviation?

• A standard deviation is the degree by which a
  score varies from the mean
• You dont need to know the equation!

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(No Transcript)
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When is data statistically significant?
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When is data statistically significant?

• 3) Large Sample Size

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Mean, Median, Mode

• 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 10, 10, 11, 11, 11, 11, 12, 12,
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• Whats the mode?
• Whats the median?

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Normal Distribution
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Skewed Data
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Homework

• Activity design an experiment to see if
  aggression is related to violent TV watching
• Be sure to address random selection, random
  assignment, experimental versus control group,
  confounding variables, and how you will minimize
  the effects of experimental and observer bias.